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REPORT 



THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 



C. C. AN 13 RE WS, 

MlXISTEli RESIPEXT OF THE UXITEI) .STATi'S TO SWEDEN AND NORWAY. 



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W A S H I N G T (3 N : 4 

G O V E E N :\r E N T P R I N T T N fi O F F I C; E 
1872. 



R E P K T 



FOFyEST^ and forest-culture of SWEDEN 



C. C. ANDREWS, 

MINISTER UKSIDEXT OF THE UXITED STATES TO SVVEEUEV ANI> NOKWAY. 



2fr. Andrews to Mr. Fish. 

Legation of the United States, 
Stoclcholm, Atigust 5, 1872. (Received September 25.) 

Sir : I have the honor to send herewith a report which I have pre- 
pared on the forest and forest-culture of Sweden. It comprises a prac- 
tical description of the manner of growing and the economical manage- 
ment and use of forests, as well as a translation of some of the prin- 
cipal laws on the administration, care, and preservation of public forests 
and for the support of instruction in forestry. 

I also transmit four diiferent treatises, in Swedish, on forest-culture, 
cited in the report; also, a report of a commission in regard to further 
legislation concerning the forests. 

The commission first mentioned recommend legislation in Sweden 
similar to what obtains in many other countries of Europe, prohibiting 
owners of private forests from cutting, for commercial purposes, trees 
under a certain size. The fact that some kinds of trees require several 
generations for their full development, and that the climate and supply 
of water in a country are much influenced by the existence or non-exist- 
ence of forests, affords strong grounds for such a law. 

Trusting that this document may be of some help in shaping the 
much-needed legislation in the United States for promoting regrowth 
and the preservation of forests, I remain, &c., 

G. C. ANDREWS. 

To the Honorable Ha:viilton Eish, 

Secretary of State, d'c., dr., dc. 



1 E C 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTUKE OF SWEDEN. 



llnclosuif.J 

REPORT TO THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE BY C. C. ANDREWS, MINISTER 
RESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES TO SWEDEN AND NORWAY, ON THE 
FORESTS AND FOREST CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

C O X T E N T S 

•» 

I. Katnre iiiul extfnt of the forests of Swollen. 

IT. Notice of the forest adminis ration. 

HI. Lesisslation aud otticial reguhitions respecting forests. 

1. Keniarks ou the report of the commi.ssiou of IbtiS, toiichiuy,, among otlier matters, private 

forests. 

2. The law establishing the forest adrainistratiou and forest corps. 

3. The law providing for forest instruction. 

4. Circular of instructions from the forest administration. 

5. The law on the management of public forests. 

6. The law on the survey and sale of products of public forests. 

1. The law on the disposal of timber on certain estates leased by the t'rowii. 

IV. The profits of forest-culture on a small farm, (being an abstract of Mr. Bjorkauiu's work for tho 

Swedish peasantry.) 

V. How a ])lan of forest management, or systematic economy, can be carried out on a small farm. 

VI. Explanation of certain terms in Swedish forest science. 

VII. Forest science as apitlied in Sweden in the cultivation of the oak and certain other kinds of 

trees. 

1. Conditions which operate on the treatment of the oak. 

2. Consumption and the means of proi'ioting regrowth. 

3. Acorns. 

4. The sowing and planting of acorns. 

5. Transplanting of the oali. 

6. The larch. 

7. The beech. 

8. The pine. 

SI. The blending of trees. 
10. The " bestand " of hee<h aud oal:. 
A^III. Instruction in forestry. 

IX. Forest literature, (aud, herein, Loudon's reiuarks ou the ■■ luduoemeuts lor I'lee-pUuiting" :tiid 

lirown's plan for Education in Forestry.) 

X. List ot t welve of the mori' rai>idly-growing trees. 



I.— NVTURK AND E.XTEXT OV THE FOUE.STS <)!■• SWKUKN. 

The great iiias.s of the forests of Sweden is found in the north central part of the 
country, and consists principally of the so-called Scotch jjine and the white or Norway 
sprnce^ both of which grow to' great size and are highly esteemed for their timber. 
The common Euroj^ean oak has its natural northern boundary along the river Dal, butf 
is cultivated up to Lnudsvall, in latitude 62" 20'. It is a splendid tree, a favorite orna- 
ment «f parks, aud produces timber superior to the American white oak. The beech 
al>ounds in the south part of the kingdom, and is cultivated even north of Upsala. 
However, the species most numerous, next to the fir, is the white birch, which has a 
beautiful drooping foliage and is useful for timber. It is found in all the forests and 
is not unfrequently used for avenues at county seats. It furnishes the principal fuel. 
The lime (in Swedish, Urn) makes a handsome and vigorous tree, and it is not uncom- 
mon to see it forming splendid avenues a couple, of centuries old. The gray alder is 
very common aud merits j)articular notice on account of its large size. The elm, (less 
stately than the American,) the soft maple, the ash, the poplar, the hawthorn, (oxel,) 
large and handsome, are also common. 

On the whole, Sweden appears to be a natural forest country. Nor i.s the climate 
unfavorable to a fair variety and hardy growth of trees. Observations at Stockholm, 
from 1754 to 1863 — one hundred and nine years — show that the extreme of heat during 
that time was 96'-.8, aud the extreme of cold 25'^\6 below zero, Fahrenheit. At Hapa- 
canda, the most northerly port, also in Jemtland, the mercury frequently freezes. [For 
some remarks ou the fruit-trees of Sweden, see report on the agriculture of Sweden, 
'' Commercial Relations United States, 1870, " p. 385.] 

In 1850, the then chief director of the Forest Institute estimated the area of land in 
Sweden which bears, or is suitable for bearing, forest at 30,000,000 aia-es, which agrees 
with the estimate of other authorities; and he expressed the opinion that if forest- 
growing was properly attended to the country would not only have enough product 
therefrom for its cwn' use. but a quantity for export, which, at the then increased price 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 5 

of lumber iu southeru countries, would be more profitable than tbe export of iron. Ho 
maintained, however, that forest economy up to that time had been managed with the 
greatest want of care. 

Mr. Forsell, in a paper on this subject, published in 1844, shows that a lack of timber 
was beginning to be felt in many parts of Sweden, and states that Stora, Kopparberg, 
and Gefleborg were the only counties so rich in forests as to be sure of their preserva- 
tion for a long term of years without an improved system of forest economy. And 
he adds that, if such a system shall not be established, the whole country will soon 
suffer for the want of forests. 

As,proof, however, of the efforts in this regard which were being adopted by the For- 
est Institute, as well as the Iron Office, it may be mentioned that on Wising's Island 
700 acres were planted with oaks, the sand plains of Christianstad and Holland coun- 
ties were planted with trees, and improvements were made in the royal parks. 

At present one sees along the principal routes of travel a generous supply of forest, 
though the trees are mostly young ; and the surface of the country, being agreeably 
undulating and abundantly supplied with clear streams and lakes, tends to produce a 
Javorable impression. The growth of young forest on patches too rocky for tilling, or 
even grazing, and the scattered seed-trees left standing in places where wood or tim- 
ber has been cut off in the larger forests, remind the traveler of the attention to forest- 
culture which is becoming general. 

The annual growth or i)roduction of forest may be calculated, says Thomde, at '22 
famns, (a Swedish "famn" is a little less than a cord,) of 100 cubic feet Swedish, per 
tunnland — say 20 cords per acre, a tunnland being equal to 1.22 aci'es — estimating 
the time of regrowth at 100 years, usual in the south and middle parts of Sweden, 
so that 300,000 acres growth out of the 30,000,000 acres are consumed annually, and 
the annual product according to the present resources of the forest is 6,000,000 cords. 

The consumption of forest" is calculated by Forsell at 7,230,000 famns yearly, includ- 
ing the export of boards and heavy timber. Strom estimates it at 7,755,200 famns; 
Lnngberg, again considering the increase of population for the present, at lease 
8,865,200 famns. Supposing the production to amount to 5,700,000 famns, there occurs, 
says Thomee, a yearly lack of 3,165,000 famns, which should be supplied in a way not 
to' draw on the forest for more than it can yield. According to the opinion of experts, 
if cultivation is properly attended to, the Swedish forests can supply that need and a 
considerable surplus. 

The export of all sorts of timber and wood from Sweden in 1870 amounted to 
109,000,000 cubic feet, besides 14,000,000 sticks of wood and other timber. The total 
urea of forest-land under the care of the administration of forests is 5,000,000 acres. 

liix-JoIIai's. 
The receipts fi-ora the sale of timlter and wood from the nulilic forests for 

the year 1870 were 53^^^, ~l 

Expenses for same period 354, 038 OG 

Leaving a balance of 84, 263 21 



Of the expenses there were appro})riated: 

For the bureau of administration : 21 , 800 

For the Forest Institute 15, 300 

For the forest schools ~ 25, 400 



For the purpose of forest administration, the kingdom is divided into six districts, 
with a forest inspector, and about twelve " jiig milstare " (hunting-master or forester) 
for each district. 

II. — Historical Skktcii of FoRf:sT Admixistuatiox. 

Most of the countries of Europe, and Sweden among them, appear to have borrowed 
the principal part of their forest science from Germany, which has long occupied the 
foremost position in respect to forest administration and forest literature. 

Forest regulations were issued by the Swedish government as early as 1647 ; and 
even before that, private owners were required by law to plant and protect from cat- 



6 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTUEE OF SWEDEN. 

tie two timber trees for every one cut. The owners of privileged estates were exempted 
from this last requirement by the diet of 1734, but it continued to apply to tax-pay- 
ing estates and to crown-lands leased to private persons till 1789. Regulations for the 
forest were again issued in 1793, but they were soon found unsatisfactory, and in 1798 
a commission was appointed, consisting of six persons, to devise new regulations, which, 
after five years' labor, reported an amendment of fifteen sections of the forest i-egula- 
tions, and their project was finally confirmed and issued in the form of forest regula- 
tions, August 1, 180.5. The same day a royal circular Icttter was sent to each of the 
county or provincial governments, ordering a project to be presented for a law on the 
duty of replanting forests. Shortly afterward. Professor F. W. Radlott' was commis- 
sioned to visit Germany to study its forest system, and his report was submitted, in 
1809, to the before-mentioned commission. The subject was, in 1810, remitted by the 
diet to the administration of marine atfairs and the bureau of public or crown lands 
and of mines ; which, after the provincial governors had expressed their opinion thereon, 
recommended (1819) that each county or provincial government should work out a plan 
adapted to its own locality, and that a committee for the whole kingdom might then 
be appointed to prepare a final project for a law on this subject. The matter was taken 
lip in the cabinet in 1820, but was postponed till 1823, in order to be united with a law 
for the sale of crown timber ; and the result was that regulations for the crown forests 
were issued by the government in 1824. Early in 1828, a committee of three persons 
was appointed by the government to report a project for the economy of public and 
private forests and amendments to the laws in regard to hunting. The committee 
reported the same year in favor of the establishment of a forest institute, to be located 
in the deer park, close to Stockholm, of suitable instruction in hunting, and the estab- 
lishment of a central bureau or administration for the management of forest affairs. 
The government established the institute, and confirmed the plan for its operation. 
The committee, on further consideration, being of opinion that the administrative duties 
could be performed by the chief director of the institute, the government postponed 
establishing the central bureau of administration, but charged the committee to pre- 
pare a new plan of instruction in regard to hunting and the management of forests. 
Report having been made as to the principles which should obtain therein, the com- 
mittee was again, in 1836, ordered to report regulations in conformity with such princi- 
Ijles for instruction in the forest and hunting establishment. Their projects were pre- 
sented in 1837, and the government issued an order embodying the same March 16, 
1838. 

Influenced by the action of the sixth Swedish national agricultural fiiir of 1853, no 
less than by that of the diet in 1853 and 1854, the government appointed a committee 
to report a project as to what means, either through the legislative or executive branches 
of the government, could further be adopted to obviate in the future the then com- 
plained of lack of forests and the injurious climatic efiects arising from their destruc- 
tion. Their report was handed in June 28, 1856, embracing a plan for the management 
of forests, and action thereon was taken in 1859, when the bureau of forest admiuis- 
tratitm v.-as created. 

III. — Fdrest Lkoisl.vtiux and Official Regulatiox,--. 

1. Hemayls on the report of the eomnmniou of 1868. 

In pursuance of a resolution of the diet of May 13, 1868, the King, on the ISth June 
of that year, appointed a special commission, of which Mr. E. V. Almquist, member 
of the first chamber, was chairman, to inquire into the need of further legislation in 
relation to forests and to report a bill for a law on the subject. Their report was sub- 
mitted the 21st December, 1870, and, with the bill accompanying it, makes 392 printed 
pages, besides numerous tables. One clause in the reported bill is the compulsory fea- 
ture, which, though less stringent, is in the spirit of enactments now in force in all of 
the countries of Europe that have given much attention to forest administration, 
namely, that owners of private forests shall not, under a penalty of from five to five 
hundred rix dollars, cut thei-efrom and dispose, for commercial purposes, trees that 
are less than 8.3 inches in ditimeter at a distance of 16 Swedish feet from the large end, 
or less than 11 inches in diameter at the large end. (See §^42 and 90.) A copy of the 
document will accompany this report. The subject is expected to be considered in the 
diet of 1873. 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTUKE OF SWEDEN. 7 

ITniuslation from tbe Swedish.! 

2. IJi'i Boyal Maje.stifs gracious instruction for the fore.H admhiiHtrafion avd the forest 
corps, given at the palace of Stodcholm, Kovemher 19, 186'J. 

$ 1. The object of the forest administration, assorting under the royal department of 
the finances, shall be to promote a suitable forest economy and chase within the king- 
dom, and shall, in this regard, as far as it is their duty, according to this instruction or 
other reimlatix)ns in force, themselves take suitable measures for this purpose or hum- 
bly proiwse to His Roval Majesty the taking of the same. It shall be the special duty 
of the administratiou'to direct and superintend the management of the crown-parks, 
the quicksand fields, commons and forests of the farms belonging to the Crown, which, 
as separately prescribed, have been placed under the care of the forest corps, and a.lso 
to see that the care and use of other common forests and quicksand fields belonging 
to private persons are properly superintended. 

$ 2. Concerning the business of the forest administration in regard to the selection of 
suitable localities in the l»ns of Rapparberg and Norriand, as crown-parks, partly during 
thesurvey and partly of land, which not yet has been subject to ageneral survey, special 
regulations are issued and in force ; and the administration shall not decide about 
the selection for crown-parks of unsnrveyed land, or of land not being surveyed, before 
communities and private persons, who consider themselves owners of the laud, have 
had opportunity to report and prove their claims ; and the decision shall be submitted 
to the judgment of His Royal Majesty before being put into execution. 

^ 3. Concerning the survey of public forests for a regulated management, the forest 
administration shall issue necessary rules, in accordance with such principles, as are 
approved of by His Roval Majesty; and the administration shall appoint ordinary or 
extra officers of the forest corps' or scluools to survey, whenever suitable, the above- 
mentioned forests, and not only examine the same after thesurvey has been completed, 
and approve of the plan for the management, with or without altering the same, but 
also to afterward prescribe necessary modifications of the management or alterations 
of the approved plan which, at the revision of the same, may be found suitable. 

§ 4. Having examined the projects and calculations which, according to § 41, here 
below, shall be annually transmitted by the district directors, (" jagmiistare,") the 
forest administration will decide about the forest cultivation and other work to be 
done during the coming year at the common or public parks, committed to the care of 
the forest corps as well as to fix the amount of the expenditures not to be exceeded. 
In regard to crown-parks and quicksand fields belonging to the Crown, the decision 
of the administration may, however, not be given to the respective officers to be car- 
ried into eflect before the general project mentioned in § 10 has been approved of by 
His Royal Majesty. 

§ 5. Concerning the business of the forest administration in regard to the felling of 
oak-trees and large timber-trees, which private parties have not acquired unlimited 
right to dispose of, otherwise than for the account of the Crown, is especially pre- 
scribed. 

$ 6. In regard to the public-forest schools, it shall be the duty of the forest adminis- 
tration to carefully superintend that the instruction is so regulated and managed that 
the objects of the school are attained ; and the administration shall assign forests for 
the practical exercises of the pupils at the Forest Institute, as well as upon the pro- 
posal of the manager of the institute distribute stipends among the pupils. 

§ 7. Officers and attendants at the forest corps, as well as at the forest- schools, shall 
be suboixlinate to the forest administration, which shall issue necessary regulations for 
the due exercising of their functions. 

$ 8. The forest administration shall also superintend the dwelling-places, farms, and 
localities assigned to the forest corps and schools, and shall see to that their farms aud 
localities are not otherwise used or disposed of than according to issued regulations, 
and that they are respectively surveyed and examined; and a copy of the record of 
each such survey shall be transmitted to the forest administration. 

§ 9. A complete ground-rent book shall be kept by the forest administration, in 
which the dwelling-places, farms and localities assigned to the forest corps and schools 
shall be entered, as well as the crown-parks and the quicksand fields belonging to the 
Crown, and also other i>ublic forests, as soon as they are subjected to a proper forest 
management. 

§ 10. Of the funds assigned for forest purposes from the seventh title of the 
budget, the admiuistratiou will dispose, according to the rules issued by His Royal 
Majesty, of that part thereof wliich His Royal Majesty shall determine. The forest 
administration will, every year, in the month of November, render to His Royal Majesty, 
for approval, a general project for the use during the coming year of the above-men- 
tioned funds placed at the disposal of the administration, thereby observing to retain 
sufficient amount, to be assigned in case of necessity by His Royal Majesty to fill uufor- 
seen wants which may occur during the course of the year. 



8 FOKESTS AND FOEEST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

5» 11. Toward the defraying of respectively-fixed expenses for crown-parks, quick- 
sand fields belonging to the Crown, and for the forests of the dwelling-places 
managed by the forest corps, necessary funds ought to be advanced in the manners 
prescribed by the forest administration and upon the requisition of the respective dis- 
trict directors from the treasury of the province, to be repaid when used for forests 
belonging to dwelling-places, by what they yield and otherwise out of the funds as- 
signed for forest purposes and placed at the disposal of the administration, it being the 
duty of the forest administration, the general project and the working-plan for the 
year having been approved, to inform all the administrations of the Provinces of the 
rules which they have to observe in regard to similar advances. 

§ 12. For the paying of such advances made by the treasuries of the provinces, 
according to the foregoing section, which ought to be refunded from the funds for forest 
purposes, placed at the disposal of the forest admiuistratioji, as stated in 6 10, as well 
as for the defraying of other expenses which His Royal Majesty has decided to be paid 
out of the same funds, the forest adminstratiou will, on application, receive from the 
exchequer out of the assigned funds the requisite amount, either by draft upon the 
respective treasuries or, if at anj^'time such may be convenient, in each. 

§ 13. The accounts which the district director shall render according to ^ 4?>, here 
below, to His Royal Majesty's govei^uor of the provinces, and to be transmitted from 
there to the forest administi'ation, shall, not only all the accounts of delivered foresE 
efteets, but also the accounts of the funds received by the district director, which re- 
gard Crown-parks, quicksand fields belonging to the Crown, and forests belonging to 
dwelling-places, the yield of which shall go the royal treasury, be fully revised by the 
administration, whereas the accounts of the latter kind in regard to other forests be- 
longing to dwelling-places or commons, the revising of which as to ciphers is done 
elsewhere, shall be revised by the forest administration with regard to the manner in 
which the received funds have been employed according to the accounts of the district 
director. The forest administration shall also fully revise the accounts of the public 
forest schools. Should, at the revision, any errors be found in the accounts, the forest 
administration will decide about the same, having, where such is necessary, heard the 
explanation of the respective jiarties. 

I 14. It shall be tlie duty of the forest administration to examine the complaints 
which in prescribed order are entered against the decision of, or steps taken by the 
forest officers in such cases, where appeal, according to regulations, may take place. 

§ 15. In regard to questions concerning the forest and chase, the forest administra- 
tion shall render the reports which may be required by His Royal Majesty or by the 
authorities. Whereas the administration shall, for the explanation of occurrent affairs, 
demand the opiuion of His Royal Majesty's governors of the provinces, of the direct- 
ors of the forest schools, and of the officers of the forest corps; also, on application, 
receive the assistance of His Royal Majesty's governor of the province, whenever re- 
quired for the execution of the decisions of the aduiinlstration, the administration 
being allowed every year, when necessary, to request tlie attendance of the forest in- 
spectors at the meeting of the administration, to jointly decide about the exercising 
of rules or measures ordered for the development of the forest management. 

§1 16. Not later than the 3lst of December every year the forest administration shall 
transmit to the exchequer college (Rammar Collegium) a properly-closed ledger for the 
past year, with annexed vouchers of that part of the funds assigned for forest pur- 
poses which have been placed at the disposal of the admiuistratiou, as well as of all 
other funds intrusted to the administration. 

^ 17. Before the 1st of April every year the forest administration shall render to His 
Royal Majesty a tabular account of the cases which have been examined by the same, 
stating in this account upon whom the decision of the case depends at the end of the 
year. 

§ 18. The forest administration shall also, before the 1st of October every year, ren- 
der to His Royal Majesty a report for the past year of the state of the forest manage- 
ment, forest schools, and the chase, based upon I'lot only the reports, accounts, and other 
informations which are transmitted from the officers at the forest corps and from the 
schools, but also upon the observations which the chief of the administration has 
made during his inspections, and v/hich report shall contain, among other, a sum- 
mary account of the charges preferred during the year by the officers and attendants 
of the forest corps for offenses against the forest and chase laws, as also every fifth year 
a synopsis of the reports of the last five years. 

§ 19. The forest administi'ation consists of a chief, a secretary, and a treasurer. At 
the administration may, in case of need, extraordinary officers be appointed as assist- 
ants. 

§ 20. The forest administration will meet as often as required and the business to be 
discussed shall be laid before the chief either by the secretary or the treasurer, accord- 
ing to the distribution between them, as below stated, or, if there should be any doubt 
as to whom the laying before th.e chief of a certain case belongs, as the chief shall 
decide. 



FORESTS AND FORP^ST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. )) 

The chief shall alone decide, having learned the opinion of either or, if necessary, of 
both the secretary and the treasurer; and they may, if their opinions should difter, 
record the same, or they shall be considered having approved of the decision. On his 
official journeys the chief may, when he finds it necessary, order the enforcement of the 
law, as also giVe warning, and otherwise demand such security from the officer as the 
forest administration has to require. He shall, however, report the same to the forest 
atlministration, to be recorded at the nest meeting which he shall attend. 

During the absence of the chief on official journeys, or when he is legally prevented 
from attending to his office, the secretary and the treasurer shall jointly exercise the 
administration, being also jointly responsible for the decisions and measures upon 
which they agree. Should they be of difterent opinion, the opinion of the one report- 
ing the case shall be the decisive one, and he alone shall be responsible for the same, 
provided the other has caused his opinion to be recorded. 

The forest administration may not, during the absence of the chief, render annual 
reports, humble propositions for the filling of vacancies, give opinions in regard to 
appeals of cases decided in the presence of the chief, and in which the opinion of one 
or the other of the administration officers has differed, or in regard to new regulations 
or alterations of those existing; neither may the administration appoint or discharge 
officers or attendants, or alter existing rules, or stipulate new ones, should not the 
absence of the chief be so extended that steps must be taken before his return. A 
record shall be kept over each and every case which has been discussed. Letters and 
other documents shall be written and countersigned by the one who lays the matter 
before the administi'ation, and who shall also dispatch and enter the same in the 
diary as soon as signed by the chief. In the absence of the chief the letters are signed 
by the secretary and the treasui'er, "for the forest. administration." 

§ 21. The chief of the forest administration, who is responsible to His Royal Majesty 
for the fulfillment of the duties of the administration, and that the cases wdthin their 
jurisdiction are properly decided and dis])atehed without delay, shall, with constant 
attention, see to that every one of the officers of the forest administration, with zeal 
and order, fulfill their duties, besides which he shall, by inspection-journeys in the 
country, ascertain the standing of the forest management, of the instruction at the 
schools, and of the chase, as well as how the officers of the forest corps and schools 
fultill their respective duties ; and he shall, when undertaking such journeys, which 
ought to be reported to His Royal Majesty, order au officer of the forest corps or schools 
to accompany him as secretary. 

$ 22. The duties of the secretary are : 

1. To examine documents and maps concerning sui-veys, and to lay before the ad- 
ministration all questions about the sanctioniug or alteration of proposed plans of 
management, as well as to prepare and read all such cases which do not, according to 
the following section, belong to the treasurer ; 

2. To enter in the diary or journal of the administration all documents and maps, 
and to make out a table from the same and the dispatches of the administration ; 

0. To take care of the archives of the administration, and to give informations from 
the same, as well as to make extracts and c<^pies of documents and maps kex)t at the 
same ; 

4. To keep a roll of the officers aisd attendants of the forest administration, forest 
corps, and schools ; and 

5. To exercise in the first hand the control the forest administration ought to exer- 
cise over the manner in which officers and attendants at the forest corps and the 
schools fulfill their duties, the reports of the faults or neglects he has observed, how- 
ever, to be laid before the administration by the treasurer. 

^ 2".?. The duties of the treasurer are : 

1. To examine reports and accounts which, in accordance with ^ 1:1, shall l)e examined 
by the forest administration ; the remarks he shall have cause to make shall, however, 
be laid before the administration by the secretary ; 

2. To examine all records of surveys and inspections of farms, manors, and locali- 
ties assigned to the forest corps and schools, and to lay before the administration not 
only the remarks and projects he thereby has found reason to make, but also other 
questions concerning the management and care of the said farms ; 

;'.. To prepare and keep the ground-rent book mentioned in ^ 9 ; 

4. To prepare and lay before the administration the project* for forest cultivation 
and similar works, with accompanying calculations of cost, which have been trans- 
mitted to the administration, as also to make out and report for examination the an- 
nual general projects for the use of the part of the forest funds placed at the disposal 
of the administration, in accordance with § 10 ; 

5. Also to prepare and read the questions about tlie disposal or paying out of money 
belonging to the same part of the said funds ; 

6. To manage the ecouon\y of the administration and to take care of its movables; 
and 



10 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTUEE OF SWEDEN. 

7. To make out and deliver to the aduiiuistration, witliin the 1st of December every 
year, the ledger mentioned in § 16. 

§ 24. The extra officers shall assist, by order of the chief, the secretary and the treas- 
urer, in revisions, accounts, and chancery- work, as also in copying maps. 

$ 25. The forest corps in the country consists of forest inspector as comptroller, dis- 
trict director as manager, and foresters as guards. The forest inspector is the chief of 
the officers within his district. Each district of a forest inspector is composed of sev- 
eral " riviers," each " rivier " being managed by a district director. The forester is the 
guard and the overseer over that part of the " rivier" which has been confided to him. 

When such are necessary, extra district directors may be appointed as assistants to 
serve within the " rivier," on the responsibility of the ordinary ; also extra foresters 
may be appointed if required. 

§ 26. The forest inspector shall superintend that his subordinates fullill their duties 
zealously and carefully. He has not only to examine the quarterly and annual reports 
transmitted to him by the district directors, but also and particularly every year un- 
dertake inspection journeys to different parts of the district, in order to ascertain 
whether existing regulations or issued orders concerning the management of forest 
and chase are followed ; should in any way incorrectness, neglect, or misdemeanor 
have taken place, such must be corrected, and, besides, graver cases reported to the for- 
est administration. The forest inspector shall, every year before the end of November, 
propose to the forest administration, and the latter decide, which forests shall be in- 
spected by him during the coming year, it being the duty of the inspector to inspect 
during the year such public forests where there is a cause for such an inspection ; be- 
sides which, the station of evei'y district director shall be inspected by the forest 
inspector at least every third year and the schools within the district once a year. 

§ 27. During the journeys of the forest inspector a record shall be kept, in which 
everything of consequence that has happened during the inspection journeys shall be 
entered, and this record shall, the journeys being finished for the year, be transmitted 
to the forest administration before the end of the following March. 

§ 28. When the opinion of the forest inspector in i-egard to surveys, examination of 
surveys, or any other subject is requested, he shall, if necessary, before giving his 
opinion on the spot itself, ascertain the circumstances. 

^ 29. The forest inspector is prohibited to, either himself or by other persons, survej"- 
forests belonging to private parties. 

§ 30. It shall be the duty of the district director ("jiigmii.star") to take proper <;are, 
according to existing regulations and approved plans of management or respectively- 
issued rules, of the crown-parks and quicksand fields which belong to the Crown, and 
re situated within the " rivier," as well as of the commons and forests belonging to the 
dwelling-places which are placed xinder the management of the forest corps, and to 
consequently himself arrange and lead the cultivation, felling, and all other work in 
the above-named forests, as well as to see that the guards properly exercise their func- 
tions. With regard to other public forests belongingto the " rivier," the district director 
shall superintend that approved plans of nuinagement are followed, or, when such 
plans are not made out, that the forests are used according to existing regulations ; he 
shall besides exercise necessary control over oak and timber trees which are not owned 
by private persons, as well as over other quicksand fields than those of which is 
spoken above, and also, in onler to have a thorough idea of the state of all the forests 
within the " rivier," to procure, himself, necessary information about the private forests 
and their management. 

^ 31. The district director shall, when ordered by the forest administration, survey 
the public forests for their proper management according to existing rules ; such a 
survey having been done, the district officer sliall, observing what is stipulated in re- 
gard to remarks made by private persons, transmit to the forest administration for 
their approval a chart made as the survey with description of the plan of management 
and other documents; he shall, besides, the case having been decided and ordered, 
alterations and additions having been entered upon the original chart and into the 
documents, again transmit to the forest adnrinistratiou the corrected copies, adding 
thereto, if the forest which has been surveyed is under the care of the district director, 
one, but, otherwise, two now copies of the chart, description, and plan of management. 
When any other than the district director of the " rivier " is ordered by the forest adminis- 
tration to make the survey, the appointed one has to observe what is stipulated for the 
district director in the foregoing paragraph. Of the copy of the chart, description, 
and plan of management returned from the forest administration, the district director 
shall take and transmit to the respective foresters a copy of each district, which 
wholly, or to a certain part, has been surveyed, and which copy shall embrace all that 
the foresters require to know. 

^ 32. The district director shall also, in the manner now prescribed or in the future 
Tuay be stipulated, revise the surveys which are to bo hehi for the proper management 
of the common forests within the " rivier ;" and the charts and descriptions made out at 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 11 

the survey shall be transmitted and corrected as above stipulated for the charts and 
descri])tious of the district surveys. 

§ 33. The district director shall diligently care for that forests and quicksand fields 
under bis management, barren but intended to bear forests, become as soon us possible 
bj' proper means a woodland, observing iu planting trees not to use any more expen- 
sive mode than is necessary for the purpose. 

$ 34. When felling is to'bedoneon public forests managed by the district director, 
or otherwise than for household purposes on other common forests, the district director 
shall himself mark the trees that may be felled and superintend the prescribed marking 
of the same. In stamping the trees, the foot of the trunk, as well as at a man's height, 
is provided with the crown-stamp, consisting of a royal crown, and below the same the 
two last ciphers of the year when the tree is marked; the stamp-iron, which is kept 
by the district director, shall never be used but in his presence. 

§ 3.5. If crown-parks, quicksand fields belonging to the Crown upon which the com- 
munity or private persons are entitled to fell trees, or if forests belonging_to dwelling- 
l)laces (official residences) which are managed by the district director, and where the 
dweller is entitled to wood for household purposes, are surveyed, the district director 
shall during the survey suitably mark out the trees which may be felled by the dweller 
or those entitled to fell trees and give them a list of the same free of charge. The 
district director shall also, where surveying a common, transmit, free of charge, a list of 
the trees which, having bei.>n marked, are at the disposal of the administration of the 
common. Timber-trees intended for sale, and wiiich are marked on crown-parks, quick- 
sand fields belonging to the Crown, or on such forests, belonging to dwelling-places, the 
yield of which entirely or to a certain part shall go to the exchequer or the salary 
ifunds, shall during the survey be divided by the district director in certain lots, each 
separately numbered. Tlie timber-trees already sold when being marked, which is the 
case with crown-parks and crown-lands iu the kens of Ropparberg and Norrland, shall 
during the survey be suitalily divided by the district director in separate tracts, which 
are assigned to the purchasers, therel)y observing that, when several persons have 
purchased timber within the same tract, equal advantages as far as it is possible in 
regard to couminnication are given to the respective parties. 

^ 36. All surveys necessary within the " ri vier " shall also be so arranged by the district 
director tliat they are finished every year, if possible, before the 1st of October ; and 
the time f.ir cncli survey when made on account of the commune, or pu forest from 
which the sale of timber will be made during the year, or already has been made for the 
account of the (exchequer or the salary funds, shall by the care of the district director be 
published in the church of the ))arish or parishes within which the forest is situated, 
in the la>ns of Kopparberg and Norrland at least fourteen days, and in other parts of 
the kingdom at least eight days, before ; but if any other common-forest is to be sur- 
veyed, shall the district dii'ector, within the time specified, inform the respective party 
wlio has requested the survey of the time for the same. 

^S 37. In regard to proposing to His Royal Majesty's governor of province the mark- 
ingof timber on crowu-pairks and crown-lands iu the Itens of Kopparbecg and Norrland, 
it shall be the dutj' of the district director, with regard to his '• rivier," to observe the 
regulations in the case stipulated for the respective forest officers. Again, iu regard 
to crown-parks in other parts of the kingdom, quicksand fields belonging to the Crown, 
and the forests which belong to dwelling-places, the yield of which goes either 
altogether or to a certain part to the exchequer or the salary funds, the district 
director shall every year bofore the end of October — marking having been done — 
ti'ansmit to His Royal Majesty's governor of province an account of the timber which 
for the year may be sold from such forest ; and this account, upon which His Royal 
Majesty's governor of the iirovince shall base the publishing of the auction-sale, must 
be made out according to forms approved of by the forest administration, and besides 
contain the proposal of place and time for the sale. It shall also be the duty of the 
district director, in regard to the forests within tiie " rivier," mentioned in this section, 
with the exception of forests belonging to dwelling-places, managed by the dwellers, 
to annually, within the month of April, report to His Royal Majesty's governor of pro- 
vince the quality of grass or pasture which maj' be got from the said forests. 

§ 38. The district director, or the officiating extra district director, or forester shall 
be present at the auction-sale of timber, grass, or pasture from the forests mentioned 
in this foregoing section, in order to give necessary information. 

§ 39. Forest plants, seeds, and other similar forest i)roducts of less importance may, 
without injury to the forest, be taken from the same and sold by the district director 
managing the forest ; he shall, however, respectively account for the returns. Unlaw- 
fully felled timber, which has been seized, shall be reported for sale to His Royal 
Majesty's governor of province. If the amount of such timber is small or difficult to 
guard until an auction of the same has taken place, through the care of His Royal 
Majesty's governor of province, the district director uniy request the nearest sheritf Iso 
sidl the same. 

■& 40. In regard to felling and carrying away of timber and other forest products sold 
2 F C 



12 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

from public forests, the district director shall, either iu markiug or otherwise, give 
such iiistructious which are uecessary for the guarding or control of tlie same. 

§ 41. The district director shall, every year, before the 1st of October, transmit to 
the forest administration two copies of a project to forest cultivation or other work, 
which ought to be done during the coming year, of forests managed by him, as well as 
a calculatioQ of the cost of sucli work, for which cash is required. 

^^ 42. After the project and estimate mentioned iu the foregoing section have been 
examined by the forest adniiuistratiou and the decision of the administration has 
been made known to the district director, the latter shall see that the works approved 
of by the forest administration are executed ; and he shall, iu regard to crown-parks 
-witiiin the " ri vier '' quicksand fields belonging to the Crown, and such forests which, be- 
longing to dwelling-places, are managed by him, draw and receive iu advance from 
the treasurer of the lieu, the funds uecessary for these works, accordiug to the regula- 
tions stipulated for this purpose by the forest administration. 

^ 4:5. The district director shall, separately for each forest, account for not only the 
funds lie shall receive toward the expenses for the care of the forests managed by him, 
or for other purposes, but also for all the forest products delivered from the said for- 
ests, as well as such forests belonging to the dwelling-places within the " rivier," which 
are not managed by him and of which a part of the income goes to the exchequer. 
The district director" shall, theref<ire, according to the rules issued by the forest admin- 
istration, keep requisite books, and evei-y year, before the 1st of April, transmit to His 
Eoyal Majesty's governor of province proper accounts, based iipou the same, for the 
piust calendar year, these accounts to be acroiupanied by respective vouchers, and 
transmitted in two copies, with the excepti<ni of the accounts which embrace forest 
products delivered from such forests, of which either the whole or a part of the in- 
come shall go to the exchequer, of which only one copy is required, all timber to be 
entered by cubic foot, heavier timber by the piece, fuel aud fencing in cords of 100 
cubic feet or loads of 33^ cubic feet, and smaller timber iu numbers of hundred and 
twenty. 

^ 44'. The district director shall, besides, with regard to such forests belonging to 
dwelling-places within the " rivier," which are not managed by him, aud the greater or 
smaller part of the income of which goes to the exchequer or some salary fuuds, ex- 
amine the accounts of the expenses for the managemeut of such forests, and which ac- 
counts are transmitted to him by the respective owners of the forests. 

^ 4.5. In regard to dwelling-places within the " rivier," assigned to foresters, the dis- 
trict director'shall watch over that the same are, iu regard to buildings aud cultivation, 
properly managed aud maintained. 

§ 46. At the instance of His Royal Majesty's goveruor of the province, the district 
director shall assist at surveys and examiiiation of dwelliug-idaccs and other public 
farms, and at explorations for ascertaining if surplus lands air siiit;il>ic to lie n'taiued 
as crown-parks; also to explore (luicksaiul tields iu the order picsii ilied ; licsides which 
he shall, iu order to guard the interest of the Crown at surveys and divisions, in regard 
to the selecting of land for cr()wn-parks, be present at the meetings to which he shall 
for this purpose be called by the respective surveyor. The district director shall also, 
with regard to business belongiug to his office, give hisopiuiou whenever requested by 
His Royal Majesty's goveruor of province. 

^ 47. The district director shall, wheu felling is more extensively done than per- 
mitted on commons managed by the owners themselves, or where, on such as other 
common forest within the " rivier,"uot managed by the district director, the regulations 
for the guarding aud care of the forest stipulated in the approved plan of manage- 
ment are not respectively observed, report the case to His Royal Majesiy's governor of 
province, provided the fnresr dees not belong to the farm of a jiulilie iiistitiitiou, the 
ownership of which is not vet legalized, in which case the report of the distriei director 
ought to be made, if the farm to which the forest belongs is cultivated by the lessee, 
to "he authority under whom it is subordinate, but otherwise to the forest administra- 
tion, it beiug the duty of the latter authority, the rejiort having been uuide, to call 
attention to the case of the managers of the institution. Should the dweller, settler, 
or lessee of a public farm or locality .-x.eed his lawful right iu regard to the use of the 
forest, or should any offense be committed against the forest and huutiug laws, which 
not only should infringe upou the right of private parties, the district director shall 
prefer charges against the offender. 

^S 48. At the end of every quarter, aud within one month, the district director shall 
rei)ort to the forest inspector all that has taken place within his district duriug the 
passed quarter ; also the inspection journeys and surveys which have been made duriug 
this time within the district, either by himself or appointed extra district directors ; 
more imiiortanl- eveuts, as large fires and damages by storm, &c., ought, however, to 
be immediately rep«rted. 

§ 49. The district director shall also, every year before the 1st of April, transmit to 
the forest administration a report of everything worth remarking in regard to the 
management of the forest aud chase that has taken place during the past year; this 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 13 

report, of which the district director shall deliver a copy to the forest inspector of the_ 
district within the time above mentioned, onght to embrace, not onlj^ an account of 
the work which has been done during the year in the forests managed by the district 
director, but also information about the influence former measures have exercised 
and how other common forests within the district are managed ; the report ought, 
besides, to contain a list of all charges preferred during the year through the care of 
the district director for offenses against the forest and hunting laws. 

<ji no. It shall be the duty of the forester ("krono jagaren") to see to it that division 
lines and otlier bonudaries around the common forests, over which he has been ordered 
to watch, are kept opeu and undisturbed, and also to report to the district director all 
unlawful felling and" hunting, and to exert himself in finding the olfeuder and to prove 
his guilt. 

§ 51. In forest cultivation, felling, carrying away of timber, and in other works in 
the forest belonging to his district, the forester shall superintend that the orders of the 
district director'are properly observed and that the work is carefully done ; he shall 
also take care of the planting " schools" laid out within the said forests. 

§ 52. The forester shall carefully superintend that felled or ouly marked forest pro- 
duct within his district are not wrongfully taken away; and ho shall ask the owner, 
when carrying away his timber, to give him a receipt, which he will hand to the dis- 
trict director. 

vS 53. The forest inspector and the district director shall each keep a list ot all offi- 
cial papers received as well as a copy-book for official letters sent; they shall also, as 
well as the forester, take ju-oper care of all maps and documents belonging to the office. 
At the change of officers an inventcn-y ought to be made to the forester by the district 
director, to the district director by the forest inspector, and to the latter by a person 
api)ointed by the forest adniiiiistration. 

^^ 54. At occurring tires, the respective district director and foresters shall immedi- 
ately, on being acquainted of the fiict, set out for the place of the lire and take suit- 
able' measures for the extinguishing of the fire; the district director shall take the 
command of the firemen. 

<j 55. The district director and foresters shall endeavor to destroy voracious and 
noxious animals, and to promote a proper hunting. 

^^ 56. Officers belonging to the forest corps shall, except on special permission of the 
forest administration, live within their respective districts, and at the dwelling-places, 
where such suitably built are assigned to the officers. 

$ 57. Each and every one of the officers and attendants of the forest corps shall 
obey the orders of their respective superiors. 

^ 58. In order to be competent to the office of secretary or treasurer at the forest 
administration, and as forest inspector, and district director, the apiilicant shall have 
graduated from the Forest Institute. No other but those who have graduated from the 
Forest Institute can be appointed extra officers at the forest administration or extra 
district directors. Those Avho haA^e graduated from public forest schools or proved 
themselves to be competent to the position shall be appointed foresters in preference 
to other ap[i]icants. 

^ 59. The chief of the forest administration, the secretary, and the treasurer 
at the same, and tlie district director are appointed by His Royal Majesty. The 
vacancy of the secretary, treasury, or district directorship is published by the 
forest administration three times in the Post och Inrlkes Tldningar, where, after 
applicants may, within fifty-sis days from the time of the vacancy, tender their 
humble applications, accompanied by merit list and certificates to the forest adminis- 
tration, who, according to stipulated rules, will transmit to His Royal Majesly their 
proposition to the filling of the vacancy, as well as the applications. The forest inspec- 
tor is appointed for a certain time by His Royal Majesty upon the proposal of the for- 
est administration. Extraordinary officers of the forest aclminlstratlon and extra dis- 
trict directors are nominated by the administration after the opinion of the district 
director has been learned. The administration nominates their attendants and forest- 
ters after the proposal of the district director of the rivier. The district director 
shall, as soon as a place is vacant, engage a suitable person until the nomination of 
the forest administration has been Issued. 

§ 60. The chief of the forest administration may, business permitting, enjoy leave of 
absence twice a year, each time for a period of fourteen days, after having reported his 
intended absence to the royal department of the finances, and the secretary and the 
treasurer may, with the consent of the chief, obtain leave of absence for one mouth, 
once a year, however, not when the chief Is absent. 

The forest administration may grant the forest inspector and the district director 
leaveof absence for a time not exceeding three months. Leave of absence for longer 
time may be applied for to His Royal Majesty ; the application of the secretary, treas- 
urer, forest Inspector or district director, to be delivered to the forest administration, 
who, approvingly or disapprovii.gly, transmit the same to His Royal Majesty. Leave of 
absence for a longer or shorter time may be granted by the administration to extra or- 



14 FOEESTS AND FOREST-CULTUEE OF SWEDEN. 

dmaiy ofScers and atteudants at the forest administration as AveJl as to extra district 
directors and loresters; however, leave of absence for a time not exceeding fourteen 
days may be granted by the district director of the rivier to extra district directors and 
foresters. Ofticers at the forest administration are not allowed to stay, without leav^e 
of absence, outside their districts for longer time than three days: foresters may not, 
without the permission of the district directors, remain outside their district for more 
than one day. 

§ 01. When leave of absence is granted by His Eoyal Majesty to the secretary, treas- 
urer, forest inspector or the district director, His Eoyal Majesty will, upon the proposal 
of the forest administration, prescribe how the office shall in the mean time be at- 
tended to ; but should there be auj' vacancy among the officers or atteinlants belong- 
ing to the forest administration, the forest corps or schools, the forest administration 
■will see to the temporary tilling of the same. 

§ 152. If an office at the forest corps to which a dwelling-place is assigned should be 
vacant by death, discharge, or promotion, after the 14th of March, and before Thonne 
day, he or his heirs will give up the dwelling-place to next following 14th of March, 
but if after Thomie day on the 14th of March after the elapse of one year from Thonue 
day ; in both cases shall the new appointee compensate his predecessor for the standing 
crops, and remunerate him for such winks as have been done in pn'i)ariug for a crop. 
Foresters will, as soon as nominated, take possession of their dwelling-places. 

^ (i3. Should the chief of the forest administration make himself liable to any faults 
or neglect in the service, charges will be preferred against hiin at the supreme court of 
His Eoyal Majesty and the Kingdom, and if such be the case with the secretary or the 
ti'easurer, the chief may, if such be necessary, dismiss them for the time the sitit shall 
last. Extra officers at the forest administration, who shall make himself guilty of fault 
or neglect in the service, may receive ■warning from the administration ; or if he contin- 
ues his offeuse.s, he shall be dismissed from office either for a certain time or forever. At- 
tendant at the administration who is unreliable or disobedient, may, according to cir- 
cumstances, either receive -naming from the administration, lose his situation for a 
certaiu time, or be discharged. 

^ 64. Should the forest inspector or district director neglect through carelessness, 
omit or refuse to fulfill his duties, or should he stay away from his office without per- 
nii.ssion or legal cause, he will receive warning of the forest administration; should 
he continue his otfenses, he will be fined to an amount corresponding to not above 
three months' salary, or dismissed from office for an ecpial time; should he, how- 
e\er, commit similar often.ses, or be guilty of graver neglect, a public accuser, a}!- 
pointed by His Eoyal Majesty's governor of province, will, at the request of the 
forest administration, prefer charges against him at the respective court, and the forest 
administration will in such a case, or when charges are preferred against officers at 
the forest corps, dismiss the person from office, ■w'hen circumstances so require. Should 
the extra district director neglect his duties, the stipulations in the foregoing section 
in regard to extra ordinary officers at the forest administration may be applied. 
Foresters found to be incompetent, careless, or neglectful, or guilty of. unfaithfulness, 
partiality or selfishness nuiy, having previously received warning of the respective 
district tlirector, without changing his conduct, be dismissed by the forest administra- 
tion for a certain time, or discharged. 

^ 05. Should au officer at the forest corps fail to render, within the time specified, the 
information, declaration, or account required by the forest administration, the admin- 
istration will, for each repeated neglect, hx a suitable fine for the exceeding time. 

§ 66. No coniplaiut can be made of received warning, but from tiie decision of the 
forest administration, by whom the offender is sentenced to other punishment, may- 
humble a|>peal be made, which will have to be transmitted to His Eoyal Majesty 
through his departmeut of finances, within the time specified in the royal instruction 
of December 14, 1866. 

§ 67. Coucerniug the business of the forest administration with regard to the filling 
of vacancies at the forest institute and forest schools, or in regard to leave; of absence 
applied for by officers and attendants at the same, the rules stipulatrd above for dis- 
trict directors will exist in regard to the manager of the forest institute and the 
teacher at the same, and at the other schools; the same regulations exist for overseers 
and attendants at the schools as for foresters. 

'5 66. This instruction shall be in force from the commencement of the next year, 
1870, when the royal instruction of the 16th of March, 183d, for the forest and chase 
corps, shall cease to be valid. 

Which all whom it may concern shall have to obey. 

lu witness whereof we have hereunto set our hand and caused our roval seal to bn 
affixed. 

The Palace at Stockholm, Nover.iber 10. 1869. 

GAEL. [r..s.] 

GU8T OF U(JGLAS. 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 15 

[Translation from the Swedish. 1 

?,. Uis Majesfji the Khnff: gracious regulations for forest iiififnictioii irilJiiii the Kingdom, 
given at the Palace of Stockholm, Mag "25, 1860. 

We, Charles, by the Grace of God the King of Sweden, Norway, &c., &c., make 
kjiown: Th;it, wlicrt-as the rules for the forest institute, jjjraciously jriven on the liith of 
October. L-^v!-, ill srvcral re<i;ard8 require some amendiut'tit, and whereas it has been 
lately decided to estal)Iish, at the expense of the government, lower forest schools, we 
have tonud proper, ha viui;' learned the humble opinion of onr administration of i'orests, 
to cancel the above-mentioned rules, and hereby graciously to order that free instruc- 
tion shall be given at the f()r(,'st schools, which stand under tlie administration of for- 
ests, at the forest institute, in a higher course of teaching, for the educ ition of forest 
managers, and at the forest schools in a lower course, for the education of skillful 
foresters and planters, and we do, for these schools, and the private forest education, 
supported by public funds, graciously sanction the f(dlowing regulations: 

ClIAPTEH I. 
THE FOREST IXSTITUTE — ITS OBJECT AND OUGANIZATION. 

vS 1. A suitable locality in the royal park, near Stockholm, shall continue to be placed 
to tlie disposal of the forest institute, embracing lecture-rooms, library, rooms for col- 
lections, the director, «ne teacher and one 'porter, also necessary ground for nursery, 
trei;-planting, and target-ground ; a suitable forest in the vicinity of the city shall also 
be placed under the regular care ami management of the institute, in order to impart 
to the pupils practical knowledge herein. 

^ 2. In order to teach the pupils surveying, appraisement, and the technical terms of 
the forest, they shall, during a certain time every year, be employed in forests suitable 
for the purpose, under the direction of the teachers; separate funds will be assigned 
for this purpose. 

?i ;5. To assist the pupils during their stay at the institute, a certain number of sti- 
pends, the amount of which will be separately fixed, will be assigned to such indigent 
pupils who have made themselves deserving of the same, through industry, skill, and 
good conduct. 

i^ 4. The institute is to be managed by a director, appointed by His Royal Majesty, 
and the director, together with four teachers, also appointed by His Royal Majesty, 
will furnish the instruction, viz : one the care and management of forests, one hunting 
and forest laws, one natural history, and one mathematics; these teachers Vk'ill be 
entitled to their years of service, as merits equal to the forest and cliase officers of the 
kingdom, the two latter only in case they have graduated at the forest institute. For 
the appointing of director, as well as teachers, the forest administration will nominate 
candidates. At the institute is also a portei', appointed by the director, and may by 
him be removed. 

§ 5. The course of instruction shall embrace mathematics and natural history to the 
extent required for the superintendence of forests and the chase; knowledge of the I'egu- 
lations for the forest and the chase, book-keeping, and of the forms for forest accounts ; 
hunting; theoretical and i^ractical knowledge of Ibrest-appraisement ; cultivation of 
woods and forest-technology ; as well as expertness in survej'ing, map-drawing, level- 
ing and shooting. 

^S (j. The course of instruction will be continued during two years, counted from the 
commencement of the month of June every year, and be so arranged that fully edu- 
cated pupils may yearly graduate and new ones be admitted in their place. 

vS 7. Pupils who wish to obtain certificates of- having graduated, shall, having previ- 
ously undergone a probation at a public exannnation, manifest sufficient knowledge 
and skill in all the branches which they have been taught at the institute. In order 
to obtain a certificate for forest-management, the pupil shall prove himself to have 
satisfactorily constructed a ma]), with regular plan of forest surveying and cultivation. 

^ 8. The instruction shall continue during the whole year, with the exception of 
three weeks' vacation during Christmas, and one week after the yearly examination, 
and shall l»c thus regulated, that the pupils acquire, from commencement of October 
until the end of May, theoretical and such practical knowledge as local circumstances 
at the institute admit of, and that, during the summer months, the pupils are occu- 
pied in the forests of the government, and under the direction of the teachers, with 
surveying and estinuitiou of forests, and with the most usual modes of the cultivation, 
care., and felling of trees. 

\\ y. Every year, at the commencement of the month of June, the pupils shall be 
publicly examined in all the subjects in which they have received instruction. The 
l)upil who, having previously undergone a probation, proves himself at the examina- 
tion to possess the knowledge and skill mentioned in ^ 7, may, without regard to the 
longer or shorter time he has been at the college, receive due certificate. 



16 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

THE DIUKCTOR OV THE FOREST INSTITUTE. 

91 10. The tlirectm- ought to have made himself known as possessing knowledge and 
experience of fonst-Jiuinaging, and shall live within the locality of the institute, in 
order to properly exercise his functions. His duties shall embrace not only the ad- 
ministration of the institute and the responsibility of its operations, and of the com- 
pleteness of the instruction, but also to promote the development of and spread 
throughout the country the science of forest-management. 

It shall consequently be tlie duty of the director — 

1. To quartcilv coUrct froiii tlie treasury of His Royal Majesty and the realm, at the 
request of the ioicst adiuinistration, the funds assigned to salaries and maintenance of 
the institnte: to dispose of these funds according to regulations, and for each calendar 
year account for their disposal, which account shall be delivered before the end of the 
next following February to the forest administration for auditing. 

2. To watch over the care and maintenance of the ground, buildings, nurseries, 
archives, library, collections, tools, implements, and other movables of the institute, 
and to see to it that complete lists of the same are made out and always at hand. He 
shall, however, according to what is stated below, have right to suitably distribute 
between the teachers the administration and care of collections, tools, and the mova- 
bles. 

3. To, having examined' the certificates produced and the amount of kiiowledge 
possessed by the candidates for admission, admit them as jinpils, and, according to 
statements of the teachers, separately for each branch, issue certificates to pupils who 
have finished their course, and to propose to the forest a.dministiation the distribution 
of the assigned stipends among such pupils who shall be considered most deserving of 
the same. 

4. To issue regulations as well for the maintenance of good order and morality 
within the institute as for the suitable course of teaching and the manner of imi)arf- 
ing the same, for which purpose the director shall make out a regular table of instrnc- 
tion, so that the business be properly distributed between the teachers, and the time 
advantageously employed to the benefit of the pupils. 

5. To himself instruct in one of the head branches of forest economy as well as, 
business jiermittiug, be j)resent at the preliminary examination of the pupils in the 
other branches. 

6. To endeavor in every possible manner to promote the knowledge and s])rea(l of 
an improved forest economy and management of the chase within the kingdom, for 
the purpose of which he must keep himself imformed of the progress of the science 
and technical terms of the forest, even in Ibreign countries, and to write and publish 
pamphlets on the subject whenin-er civeuinstanees require. 

7. To rejjort to tlie forest administration partly such business whicli requires the 
decision of His Royal Majesty, and partly such steps in regard to an improved forest 
economy and management of the chase within the kingdom which maybe found 
necessary. 

R. To make such reports or give such information concerning the forest economy 
and the management of the chase which the forest administration may demand, as 
well as to render to the same yearly accounts of the operations of the institute; and— 

9. To give the porter instructions in regard to his attendance and other duties at 
the institnte. 

THE TEACHERS AT THE FOREST INSTITUTE. 

v^ 11. The teachtn- of forest economy ought to have graduated at the institute with 
honors, and thereafter, on his own resjionsibility, manage a forest district, and, as his 
services are constantly required, he onglit to live within the institute. This teacher 
shall— 

1. Instruct and examine in all the braneln's of forest economy in whicli the director 
himself does not teach, and, besides, practically instruct the pupils in surveying and 
estimating of the area of forests, and the cubic contents of trees, construction of maps, 
valuation of soil, growing and felled timl>er, to collect and preserve seeds, the laying- 
out and care of nurs(>ries, forest growing and planting, the position of seed-trees, clear- 
ing, to quench quicksand, felling of trees, assorting and marking of timber, as well as 
to conduct a party of the pupils in the forests for practical measuring, estimating, and 
dividing of forest land. 

2. To have under his care, and to account for, the archives, library, and movables of 
the institute, with the exception of those for which the teacher of the chase and reg- 
ulations is responsible. 

3. To manage the economy of aud account for the forests assigned to the care of the 
institute. 

4. To a.ssist the director in watching over that given instructions are followed, aud 
in maintaining industry aud order among the pupils; aud 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 17 

5. To take command of the place in the absence of the director. 

v^ 12. The teacher of the chase and regulations shall have graduated at the institute 
with honors, and thereafter served at tlie forest and chase corps of the Kingdom. This 
teacher shall — 

1. Instruct and examine in the knowledge of fire-arras, shooting, the theory and 
tecliuical terms of the chase, forest and chase regulations, and book-keeping. 

"2. Assist at the practices in forest economy, and conduct, during the summer season, 
a i)arty of the pujiils on iiractical measuring, estimating, and dividing of forest land. 

:>. To exercise tlie pu[)ils in target-i)raetioe, and also, when there is an opportunity 
of hunting and driving game, instruct the pupils in the care of wolf-pits, traps, nets, 
and cages ; the making aud care of hunting implements, the keeping of forests, as well 
as to prefer charges against poachers aud other offenders against game aud forest 
laws ; and — 

4. To take cai'e of and account for the tools aud collections of models of the institute, 
as well as of the forest and hunting implements, aud of what belongs to the target- 
ground. 

§1 13. The teacher of natural history ought to have made himself known as thoroughly 
well acquainted with this science. His duties shall be — 

1. To instruct and exanune in those parts of physics, chemistry, and mineralogy 
which are required for the knowledge of forest climate and soil, in general and forest 
botany, and in zoology, as far as this branch of knowledge isconnected witli the forests. 

2. To instruct in the manner of preparing herbaria, aud of stuffing and preserving 
aninuxls and insects. 

.3. To conduct the pupils on mineralogical aud botanical excursions, and to practice 
with them the examining of .soil and plants. 

4. To instruct the pupils during visits to the museum of the Academy of Sciences ; aud 

5. To take care of and account for the zoological and botanical collections of the in- 
stitute, and to make out complete lists of the same. 

"J 14. The teacher of mathematics ought to have made himself known as thoroughly 
acquainted with this science. This teacher shall instruct and examine in arithmetic, 
algebra, i)lanimetry, stereometry, trigonometry, conical sections, geometrical construc- 
tions, descriptive geon\etry, general and forest architecture, elements of mechanics, aud 
theoiy of the consti'uction and use of mathematical instruments. He shall besides 
practice with the pupils the drawing and copying of maps, calculating of areas, sketch- 
ing uuips, surveying, roustruction of buildings and roads for forest purposes, with esti- 
mates of materials aud labor, measuring of cubic contents, aud adjustment of instru- 
ments. 

PUPILS AT THE FOREST INST1TI:TE. 

^ 1.5. In order to be admitted at the forest institute, application shall be made to 
the director within the middle of the mouth of May, aud the following certificates 
annexed to the same : 

That the applicant is at least 18 and not above 28 years old ; that his constitution is 
good and faultless, and not affected with any kind of incurable disease; that he has 
always conducted himself well; that he either has passed such examination and ob- 
tained certificates of approval in mathematics, natural history, and Swedisii grauunar, 
which entitles him to enter the universities of the Kingdom ; or that he has liec-n ex- 
amined by the appointed teachers at any of the elementary schools witbin tiie king- 
dom in each of these branches, aud found to possess sufficient knowledge therein to 
enable him to graduate from the school; also, that he has, during at least one year, 
with some forester practiced and acquired sufficient skill in the economy aud survey- 
ing of the forest. 

ij 16. Applicants whose applications are complete, and who consequently may expect 
to fill the vacancies at the institute, must publicly and in the i^resence of the director 
be examined by the teachers in arithmetic and algebra, planimetry aud stereometry, 
general botanies, aud zoology ; also, to write a Swedish theme. 

§ 17. Those exhibiting the greatest knowledge shall have the preference of being ad- 
mitted to the institute. 

<5 18. At the commencement of every year the director shall propose to the forest ad- 
ministration for receiving of stipends those of the pupils who are in need of assist- 
ance, and have shown themselves most deserving of same through industry, sjkill, and 
orderly conduct. 

^ 19. The pupils shall obey the orders of the director aud the teachers, orderly aud 
decently conduct themselves, follow the regulations at the institute, and attentively 
and industriously profit by the instructions. 

<5 20. Should the pupil disobey the ordersof the director or the teachers, create any dis- 
turbance at theinstitute, conduct himself in a disorderlj" manner, or neglect his studies, 
he shall receive warning from the director. Should he not then change his conduct, 
but continue his offenses, the director shall, after having consulted the teachers, send 
him away from the institute. 



18 FORESTS AND FOEEST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

Chapter II. 

THE FOREST SCHOOLS — THEIR OBJECT AND ORGANIZATION. 

§ 21. Suitable localities, large enough to permit both teachers and pupils to live 
there, shall be placed to the disposal of the forest schools at such places as will be 
especially determined upon. 

§ 22. To a certain number of pupils, unable to maintain themselves at the school, 
sufficient assistance shall be given, according to what is therefor specially prescribed. 

^ 23. The forest schools shall be managed, under the superintendence of the uearest 
district director of forests, by a teacher appointed by His Royal Majesty the King, 
after having been proposed to the situation by the govenor of the province and with 
the a|)proval of the forest administration ; this teacher shall be assisted by a ranger, 
nominated by the forest administration. 

$ 24. The instruction at the forest school shall embrace the four first rules of arith- 
metic and the rules of proportion in whole and decimal numbers; knowledge of scales 
for plan-draWings, as far as required for making of maps and measuriiig" distances ; 
knowledge of square and cubic measures with practical application at the measuring 
of the extent and content of surfaces and solid bodies; knowledge of the nonrishing 
organs of the forest trees and of their food, and the natural conditions for their thriv- 
ing ; knowledge of the most dangerous insects of the Swedish forest, and of the man- 
ner of destroying them ; the chief principles of rational forest economy, and knowl- 
edge of the rules existing for the peace and keeping of forests, marking and carrying 
of timber, hunting, and also of the legal form for entering charges. The pupils "will 
also be practiced in marking out and measuring of forest-lines ; tilling places, and 
sowing fields ; calculating of the cubic content of trees and timber ; the position of seed- 
trees; sowing fer hand and planting as well as the preparing of the soil for forest- 
growing ; collecting and assorting of forest-seeds ; clearing and cutting, assorting and 
piling of timber ; marking cattle and making out of graziug-lists ; laying up and keep- 
ing patrol-lists ; making out lists of unlawfully-felled timber on which embargo has 
been laid ; monthly reports and service accounts ; the trapping of beasts, and the grand 
chase. 

§ 25. The course of instruction shall begin on the 1st of October every year and con- 
tinue until the middle of the following June, during which time nil tlir nsiKctive sub- 
jects and exercises shall have been taught to the pupils, whereaftri they air, publicly 
examined in the ])resence of the district director in order to ascertain the knowledge 
and skill they have acquired. 

^ 26. The pupil who has satisfactorily passed the examination is entitled to receive 
certificate of approved skill, issued by the district director and the principal of the 
school. 

THE TEACHER OF THE SCHOOL. 

§ 27. For the competency as teacher at the forest school, which office entitles him to 
count as many years of service within the forest and chase corps, the applicant shall 
have graduated at the forest institute and received certificate of ap])roved knowledge, 
])esides having been forest-mannger on his own responsibility. This teacher is the 
chief in command at the place, the principal of the school, and accounts for and is 
responsible for the proper mauangement of the school. He shall, consequently, quar- 
terly, receive the funds assigned to the school, use them with jintniiinit. and yearly 
account for the same, which account shall, within the time siitciliril in »>!(», mom. i, 
for the forest institute and for the object mentioned in the said mum, be forwarded to 
the forcNt ailininistiatidn through the governor of the province. It shall, besides, be his 
duty to aiian^i' Ihr teaching and exercises to the benefit of the pupils ; to keep good 
orcier and dec* nt conduct within the school ; to impart himself the theoretical knowl- 
edge, and to superintend and correct the exercises and work in the forest. He shall 
also render yearly report over the operations of the school, which is forwarded to the 
forest administration through the governor of the province. 

'' SKOGSRATTAREN," OR ASSISTANT. 

^ 28. The assistant must have made himself known as steadily and orderly, to be 
able to write, and well acquainted with all kind of forest- works. He is subordinate to 
the direct command of the teacher; he has the care of all the implements and mate- 
rials of the school, for which he is responsible and shall account for to the teacher; 
manages the school in the absence of the teacher, and is responsible that the exercises 
and works ai'e properly done, and assists in keeping good order among the pupils. 

THE PUPILS OF THE FOREST SCHOOL. 

§ 29. Those wishing to be admitted to the forest school shall make their application 
to the priuciiial in their own handwriting, with auuexed respective certificate of a 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 19 

clergyman, of good conduct, and of good and faultless bodily constitution, and if the 
applicant has been in service, a service certificate; the applicant shall be able to read 
fluently Swedish and Latin letters and writing, write an intelligible hand, know the 
first four rules of arithmetic, and be from twenty to thirty years old. 

1^ 'AO. Having examined the applications and the applicants, the principal of the 
school shall admit as ](upi]s the most skillful and best conducted. 

§ 31. The pujiils sliall dlicy the orders and prescriptions of the teacher and assistant, 
and observe industiN , (udir, and good conduct. Should the pupil disol)ey the teacher, 
or the assistant disoln y tlic rules of the school, be neglectful or disorderly in his con- 
duct, or should he create disturbance, he shall receive warning of the principal ; should 
he not then change his conduct, but continue his offenses, the principal shall send him 
away from the school. 

Chapter III. 

PRIVATE FOREST-INSTRUCTION. 

§ 32. To the establishing of forest schools in the respective provinces of the king- 
dom, and to the education of competent assistants at the managing of private forests, 
His Royal Majesty and the government will, yearly, contribute as far as the funds will 
permit'aud His Royal Majesty shall deem requisite, provided the communities which 
apply for such an assistance shall fulfill the following conditions : 

1. That the community shall place requisite locality to the disposal of the school, 
furnish the teacher as well as the pupils with apartments, and pay for the maintenance 
of the school. 

2. That the organization of tbe school and the proposed rules for its operations has 
been sanctioned by His Royal Majesty; and, 

3. That the operations of the school, of which a yearly report sliall be made to the 
forest administration, sliall be exercised under the superintendence of the nearest dis- 
trict diiccfor and the forest administration. 

In rrganl to the time for aiiiilyiug for the positions as director, teacher, and assistant, 
and for resignations, how leave of alysciice shall be applied for or charges preferred for 
offense and neglect in service, as well as the punishment therefor, the regulations pre- 
scribed in the instructions for the forest administration shall be in force. 

All of which whom it may concern shall obey. 

In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hand and caused our royal seal to be 
aflixed. 

The Palace at Stockholm, Mav 25, 1860. 

CARL. [L. s.] 

J. A. Gripenstedt. 



[Translation from the Swedish.] 

4. Circular of the royal administration of forests toall emjyloye's iuthe "forest corps" and forest 
instruction, concerning principles for the division of the public forests for the purpose of 
systematic economy. Given June 29, 1867. 

1. The dividing or allotment of a forest consists in its delineation on a map with de- 
scription and economical plan based on careful estimates having a view to the future 
of the forest and the highest reasonable income that can be derived from it. 

2. The allotting is efiected so that there may be introduced, as circumstances require, 
high-forest culture with tract-cutting or systematic thinning, or, nevertheless, for ap- 
plying low-forest culture. 

3. Forest is divided, according to its extent and natui'e, into more or less blocks. 
Smaller forests however may each comprise only a single block. The block is divided into 
divisions or parcels, whose limits are generally determined by natural formation or 
permanent marks, and these again into subdivisions, including difierences which have 
been observed in surveying, delineating, and estimating the forest. 

4. In the surveying is noted only sucii ditferiMKH's of the forest bestand and ground as, 
accoi'ding to the above-mentioned method of forest work, exercise some influence there- 
on ; and with tlie objects and difierences noted at tiie surveying shall be added on the 
map the boundaries exactly to correspond with the facts. When a correct map hap- 
pens to have been previouslv drawn up, a copy of it, with requisite additions, shall be 
used in tli<" allotment of tli(> iorest. 

5. The map of t!ie foicst sliall l)e drawn up on such scale as allows requisite clearness 
in specifying what should be noted thereon for the economy of the forest. 

6. The forest is estimated in cubic feet or in cords of 100 cubic feet (Swedish) solid 
measure, except when the allotment or dividing takes place for thinning, (applicable 



20 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

to heavy timber,) when the estimate is madelty number or piece. The estimate ought, 
as near as jiossible, to correspond with the reality, but had better be too low than too 
high. 

7. The description shall include all important matters which, at the execution of the 
allotment, can be of wc.inht f<n- the economy of the forest. 

H. Tlie i)]aii of nianai^cnient is drawn up for a period of tweiity years and ought to 
inclndc the iMMjuisitr i>i('sfiiptious as to the manner of working the forest, rotation 
tiiiif, ciMisiniiptiuii, ciiltnic. and the other means of administration which have not 
already been jU'escribed by the public statutes. 

9. 1'raet-cnttiiig will have the preference, as a manner of working the forest, except 
where from local circumstances it is unsuitable. 

10. The rotation period should be extended as far as is necessary for raising the 
different sorts of trees and forest production which are counted on from the forest, but 
without occasioning such delay in consumption that any part of the forest shall there- 
by receive injury or deteriorate in value. 

11. The estimate of what shall be consumed during the period of division or allot- 
ment shall be based on the forest's growth, the extent of ground, and on the known 
quantity of wood and timber, ascertained by careful calculation, whereof no more may 
be taken out than corresponds with the growth of the forest during the said time. 

12. During the last year of the division ])eriod a I'evision is made for searching out 
the changes the forest has undergone and for drawing up the economy plan for the 
following division period. 

Moreover, the government having authorized the administration of forests to issue 
regulations which may be required in conformity with the above principles, the ad- 
ministration of forests has found it reasonable to ordain as follows : 

1. The method of working a forest, mentioned in paragraph 2, above, can, where 
necessary, be introduced on the same block, though on separate parts thereof; 
for exaniple, forest-grown rocky hills, moss tracts, or other land on which systematic 
thinning seems an object, also such tracts as seem suitable for low-forest culture, may 
enter into the same plan of economy with tract-cutting, where the grounds have not 
sufUcient extent for more than one block. 

2. In dividing the forest into blocks, regard is had that as far as possible the older, 
middle-aged, and young forest ■' bestands" are in suitable relations to each other, also 
that the block obtains a proper form. The ground allotted in the block for tract-cut- 
ting may not exceed '' 6,000 quadrat ref," (l,:50(j acres.) With the introducing of sys- 
tematic heavy-timber thinning, block allotment is fixed according to the means for 
floating, and iiccordingly a connected forest of even 12,000 acres may be reckoned to a 
block, })rovi(Iing the p'roilnct therefrom can be floated on the same water-course. 
Lands whereon low-forest culture is introduced, and which ai*e not entered in the econ- 
omy plan that has i>een fixed for tract-cutting, are divided into blocks of at most 120 
acrl's. When blocks are not situated apart they ought to have natural boundaries, as 
water-courses, nnush, and rocky-hill. extents, &c., tSic, or nevertheless be bounded by 
highwavs or fences; but if such do not exist, they are separated by means of a line 
cleared "through the forest to the width of 20 feet. 

3. In dividing the block into ])arcels or divisions, the principal object of which is to 
facilitate " orienting" or astronomical directions, and clearness in description, likewise 
attaining an aiiproKimating homogeneous forest bestand, the same is to be observed 
concerning their boundaries that has just been mentioned in respect to blocks; never- 
theless the separating lines may l)e cleared only the width of 10 feet. The forest laud 
of a division should not exceed 2t)0 acres except in forests which are allotted for mer- 
cliantable or heavy timber, within which, as comprising the division or parcel, may be 
reckoned only those parts divided by natural boundaries. Connected forest-blocks of 
200 acres extent, or less, constitute only a division or parcel. 

4. The surveying of tin' forest, where it is so required, may be based, as heretofore, 
on parallel Uutss rnnning in right angles, or over valleys and summit extents in oblique 
direction ; nevertheless hereafter these lines ought not to be cut or cleared more than 
is necessary for nnilung them visil)le, but shall instead be blazed to a breadth of ten 
feet. In tlie allotment of the forest f^or the purpose of systematic heavy-tinjber thin- 
ning, smaller impediments, unless sketched on the map, shall only be noted in the 
description. 

5. Fcu'est nia)is shall be drawn up on a scale of gifoo of natural size, with these excep- 
tions: lands allotted for heavy-timber thinning shall be mapped on a scale of 20000 of 
natural size; lands for low-forest culture, according to separate plan of economy, shall 
be mapped on a scale of 4rfoo of natural size. A separate map is drawn up for each 
block. On the just-mentioned maps of 20000 scale, two or three blocks may neverthe- 
less be contained, according to circumstances. When the forest is composed of several 
blocks, with map for each, a comprehensive map of the whole forest may be prepared, 
showing the relative situation of the blocks, on a scale of 20^00 of natural size ; and 
with heavy-timber thinning goi'yno of natural size. The map of the floating-courses, 
below meutioued, are drawn on a scale of 50000 of natural size. When a compreheu- 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTI^RE OF SWEDEN. 21 

sive map on the scale aforementioned has been prepared, the floating-conrses shonhl bo 
shown thereon, and in snch case no separate map of these is needed. The maps sliall 
be well and plainly drawn, colored, provided with names of bordering estates, fm-ests, 
or the like, written aronud, title, scale, and north direction whereon the variation is 
observed. The cleared or blazed lines and the separating lines pertaining to the pro- 
ject for period allotment or division shall be drawn on the map, also the yearly clear- 
ing or cntting bounds in the first period ; the latter, nevertheless, only on maps of for- 
ests wiiich are not nnder the immediate administration of the forest estahlisliinoiit. 

6. The valuation or estimate of the forest is undertaken in conformity with the rec- 
ognized principles of forest science separately for each subdivision, with regard to dif- 
ferences of ground and forest bestand. 

7. The description consists of general and bestand description. 

B. The general description is based in certain i)artsou bestand description, and shall 
under separate titles account for — 

History of the changes which the forest has undergone financially, state and admin- 
istration of possessory right, wherewith, if practicable, the official proceedings may 
be introduced on which the changes or improvements have been based and the influ- 
ence of these, of forest fires, of injuries by storms and the like on the forest's present 
condition. 

The uses or service with which the forest, from one cause or another, is charged ; 
how far these are based on culture or resolutions, and in the latter case what, also, the 
influence on the forest which the uses produce. 

Boundaries on adjoining stranger owners ; also, when the forest belongs to home- 
stead or farm, on the thereto belonging arable and pasture land ; wherewith for that 
case any land which did not before belong to the forest, but which is included in the 
allotment, with the reason therefor, ought separately to be given, regard being had to 
what is i)rescribed in Royal Forest Regulations of the 29th June, 18fiB, section 'AS. 

Nature (#'the forest land, nature of "the forest bestand in general, according to bes- 
tand de.scii[)tion. 

Block allotment or dividing, and motives for the same. 

Prevailing winds, and their etfect. 

Depredations and wastes: to what extent the forest is exposed to such, and their 
nature. 

Watching or care ; how this is ordered, and how far sufiScient. 

Pasture and autumn-mowing, and what ett'ect such use has on the forest. 

Selling of the produce of the forest, where this can come in question, wherewith, 
when tills is dependent on opportunity of floating, a map of the floating-course in the 
forest and in its neighborhood is annexed, providing such map can be had without 
separate survey. 

With several other relations which, in and for the forest administration, can be of 
weigiit, which like the above-mentioned ought to be stated under separate titles. 

9. The description of the bestand.— Table No. 1, 1, which is prepared in tabu- 
lar form, and which, with the exception of area reports, composed in proportion to the 
progress of the survey and valuation, contains the following columns: 

1. DivlKion, or parcel, (in the Swedish "skiften,") wherein is introduced the name of 
the division, in what block it has been divided, also the letters whereby these are 
denoted on the map. , 

2. Subdivision, in which column is placed the letter whereby the differences of the 
forest land and forest bestand have been denoted on the map. 

:>. Esicnt, wherein the area is given in new measuring, (quadrat ref and quadrate 
poles,) and which column is subdivided in two, namely: 

a. Forcsl. land, where regard is had to the area of forest-bearing ground, the subdivis- 
ions are given as — 

a. Foreiit-grown, or— 

/3. Bare, under which latter designation maybe introduced as well such land as pro- 
duces only bushes and scattered trees as that which shall be cleared, during the divis- 
ion period for efit'ecting satisfactory rc-growMi : ;ilso — 

h. InipitVuncnts and land not ytijaidcd an ffxit nil ij J<rtile for forests, under which is noted 
snch roclvy hills, marshes, mosses, i&c, which cannot be counted on to bear forest; also 
such preventing sand-holes, ways, and tilled places, &c., whereon forest will not be 
grown. 

4. Land where under the subdivision is described with regard to the quality of the 
laud and soil. 

5. Situation, where the situation is described as well with regard to moisture as in re- 
lation to prevailihg winds. 

G. The forest, which column is subdivided into four: 

a. Sort of trees, wherein is introduced the kind of trees the forest bestands consist of, 
with special remarks as to the prevailing — 

h. Growth, closeness, windfalls, previous treatment, &c., where a fuller description of the 
forest bestand is given, as well as how the same seems to have been treated previously. 



22 FORESTS AND FOREST-CCLTURE OF SWEDEN. 

c Aviount of production, wherein is noted tbe nnmber of cords, at 100 cubic feet (Swed- 
ish) solid measnrc. which the growiujT forest contains. 

a. Bi/ qnadrnt ref (sny 10,000 square feet) in whole and tenths of cords, and — 

S. Ill/ s/ili,lirisii}ii ill whole cords; or nevertheless with heavy or merchantable tiinber- 
thiuuiiii;- iiiiiiili.T n[' sticks per qnadrat ref and in the wh(de subdivision ; also — 

fZ. J</(; t:/«s.v, wherein is introduced the prevailiiisj ai^es of the forest bestand, designed 
to show twenty-year-age classes, from l-jn, 'J(l-4(i, Kl-HO years, &c., whereafter, under 
the title of trmliiwut of tlie hestand dnriiu/ llw dinsini/ i,riiod, (Table No. 1, 2,) follows : 

7. Manner of ivorklug the forest, in which column is noted how far the bestand shall 
proceed under allotment of tract-cutting, or if thinning or h)W-forest cultnre should be 
there introduced; and — 

8. Special means, including accounts of what ought to be adopted for the bestand and 
land during the time for which the division is regarded to be effective, whereto shall be 
stated for the occurrence of help-pruning or preparatory clearing (or cutting) that 
amount of wood and timber which thereby, according to valuation, it is considered can 
bo obtained i)er qnadrat ref. The area as well as quantity of wood and timber on the 
subdivisions may be summed up for every division or parcel, and a compendium intro- 
duced at the end of tbe table, wherein tlae whole of the area of the division or parcel 
and quantity of wood aud timber noted shows the extent aud bulk of the wood and 
timber, as well as a like compendium for the separate blocks to show the whole area 
of the forest aud stock of wood in cords, or with heavy or merchantable timber-thin- 
ning, in timber. 

To the description of the bestand belong, equally with tract-cutting, a compendium 
of the area which the different age-classes occupy, and the timber and wood mass each 
one contains. The description ought to be accompanied by the length-valuations intro- 
duced in the forest. 

10. The plan of management, of which a sketch ought to be made at the place of em- 
ployment, so that the state of the forest in case of need may serve for further direction, 
contains the following titles: 

Manner of leorkinij the forest, under which is noted for every block how great part of 
forest laud and (|uantity of wood and timber suits the one or the other of the mentioned 
methods of working the forest, aud where so required the motives for the distribution 
of the forest-ground between them. 

Rotation, under which title separately for each block and nu»thod of working tbe 
forest with necessary motives may be introduced, the age which, in general it is 
thought tlic forest should have before the same cau be consumed; whereto with heavy 
timber-tliinning under the title in question ought to be given the time. 

Tliinniinf-tinu; during which thinning shall be done. 

Consumption, which title for every block contains a calculation of what, during the 
whole of the twenty-year period, and daring every year of the same, should be consumed, 
also report where aud how consumption ought to be etfected separately for forest 
adapted to tract-cutting, thinning, or low-forest culture; aud there ought therewith 
to be added in tabular ibrm, equally for the two foregoing titles, a compendium, (Table 
No. '2,) to which is added a report for the whole block and area, aud amount of wood 
and timlier sumnu''d together. 

Forest-culliratinii, (with special regard to sowing aud planting,) under which is noted 
in table form. (Table III) by block-division and sub-division, the area of the ground 
which during the period shall undergo complete forest-cultivating, (that is, clearing 
aud raising forest again on the same place by planting or sowing,) help-culture, drain- 
age or oth(n- means for advancing re-growth, whereto may be noted the nature of the 
measures and steps which in every case shall be adopted. 

Project for tJie future dirision of the forest in respect to rotation and thinning periods, 
under which title, and with reference to the uuip of the forest, is indicated how it is 
considered, on the basis of the present state, the sub-divisions ought to be united for 
hastening, and with least sacrifice of growth, to form suitable parts of the forest, cor- 
responding with the twenty-year periods, separate report being made for the division of 
the ground in every block for tract-cutting, thinuiug, or low-forest growing. 

Pasture aud autumn-mou-ing, under which'is noted tlnit which, with regard to the sub- 
ject, should be observed during the division period. 

Means of favHitatiuij the transportation and sale of wood and tiniber, under which title is 
given, as may happen, the needful scheme for ways, improvement of floating-courses, 
disi)osing of the sorts of timber necessary for the region, &c., &.c. 

Jduiiuisirntion and care wherewith representation is made of what, in said respect, 
ought to lie jidopted to secure suitability of plan of economy, therewith always com- 
plying with what is prescribed by the control-book for cousumptiou and forest-cultiva- 
tion. 

11. Rotation wilh tract-cutting is determined so that, after knowledge is acquired of the 
kinds of trees the forest will yield, aud the growing-time required for them, the area 
of the forest-grown land is divided into the number of twenty-year periods which said 
growing-time contains ; thus, with 140 years growing-time by 7, with 120 years by 6, &c., 



F0EEST8 AND FOEEST-CULTUKE OF SWEDEN. 23 

"whereby is ascertained the extent on an average can be consnuied during every 20 ye.ars. 
Thereafter is examined through comparing the extent of this latter with the area 
which every age-class takes up, how long time consumption in each and every class, 
beginning with the oldest, should require, wherewith also knowledge is gained of the 
age of the forest at the time of consumption. If then it is found that any essential 
part of the forest should be consumed first after that which has taken injury from too 
high age, so ought said examination to be renewed in a twenty years' shorter time, and 
in proportion to the therewith greater area of consumption, till its results shows that 
the forest can be consumed without losing in value, when the last-mentioned time is 
adopted for rotation-time. 

With the introduction of regulated tind)er-thiuuing it is seen, too, that the thinning- 
time becotnes so suliicient that a requisite number of trees may bi' aldti to grow to 
heavy timber by the time its thinning returns to the same tract which it before went 
over. 

As well rotation as thinning-time should contain a certain number of twentj'-year 
periods. 
Thinning-time ought to be an equal part of rotation time. 

12 The computation of what is taken out by tract-cutting during the period is made 
thus: 

Of that part of the forest-grown land allotted to tract-cutting is assigu<'d for coii- 
sHmpiiou during forty years, two-sevenths of the area with one hundred and forty 
year, two-sixths or one-tliird with one hundred a,nd twenty year, two-fifths with one 
Iiundnd ycir lot.ition pn iods, »&c. Out of the oldest age-classes is taken otf thereafter 
as great aica as coiicsponds to said part. The forest which is found on tlie area thus 
taken oif consists of that which can be consumed during forty years. Hereof is allot- 
ted for consumption during the first twenty years', out of the oldest or least growing 
bestand, so great a part that the growing forest thereon, wifhoiU including the grown, 
may attain to wood and timber mass equally with the growing fon^st on the other 
part, with reckoning or including that grown during twenty years. Witli the reckoning 
of growth, nevertheless, so-called growth-tables may not be used unless the yearly 
growth of the bestand running in tlie two periods is accepted as the average amount 
of what these during its filled age yearly grow. 

Ill thiiinhig of heavy timber is consumed, during the time adopted for thinning, all the 
timber found at the dividing or allotment besides half the quantity of heavy timber- 
stuff which within the period of thinning can grow. Of this amount of wood and 
timber can thus be consumed during the twenty-year division period, with forty- 
year thinning-time half, with sixty-year one-third, and with eighty-year one-fourth. 
In this way is taken off that part of the forest which shall correspond with the first 
twenty-year i}eru)d, wherewith is observed, nevertheless, that only sucli land as bears 
heavy timber, or within the thinning period grows heavy or merchantable timber-stuff, 
enters into the calculation, also that the part taken oft^ does not more than twenty-five 
jier cent, exceed that which the land just mentioned, reckoned exclusively according 
to the area, shall have produced in the period. If it is found, notwithstanding such 
augmentation in area, the part taken or sold off does not contain the number of pieces 
of timber which, according to the above-mentioned calculation, ought to be had, the 
consumption is reduced to what the thus sold-otf district for a iieriod of twenty years 
can according to calculation give. 

With other thinning the consumption's mass is calculated the same as is mentioned 
in regard to track-cutting. 

In the dividing or allotment for low-forest growing, with separate blocks the area 
is divided by that number of periods which the rotation-time contains, after which the 
amount of consumption is fixed according to the bulk of production on that part vs hich 
corresponds to the first period, wherewith, if so required, the growth is reckoned in the 
manner above written. 

In the consumption calculated in harmony with the above principles is not included 
what, according to estimate, is obtained through preparatory thinning and help-pru- 
ning or clearing up of found wind-falls and dry forest, so called cleaning-cutting, like- 
wise neither the utilizing of stumps, roots, branches, and twigs. 

13. When the division or allotment takes ]>lace in such forests as are mentioned in 
Chapters III and V of the Government's Forest Regulations of 2yth June, IrifiO, witli 
the dividing proceedings and maps shall special memorial be prepai'ed, representing 
how far it is thought the forest, according to §§ 16 and 23 of said regulations, ought to 
be placed under the immediate care and administration of the forest state, also if such 
is not the condition, the need of the products of the forest at the homestead or farm 
to which it belongs ; also how far the forest is insufficient to supply said need, or 
nevertheless besides answering the requirement or leaving something over the same, 
and in the latter case the amount of surplus, also project for the forest-rent, which 
according to § 17 ought to be reckoned, or that portion of clear gain which, ou the 
principle of ^ 24 of regulations, can accrue to the resident occupier. 

14. At the reyJsioH of the allotment which here above is ordained is drawn up on tlie prin- 



24 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

ciplc of exaiiiiiiatiou of the forest, and, with high -forest culture, accurate calculation of 
till' older a.mi-classes, new allotment proceedings, wherewith the map is intended for 
intrnducing of the uoticed changes. 

Revision sliall also be had of tlie forest-maps and plans of economy hitherto drawn 
up for the public forests, where these have been operative twenty years or more. 
Should the maps and allotment proceedings be found continuing suitable the drawing 
up of new ones may be dispensed with. 

Stockholm, as above. 

A. E. ROS. 

C. A. T. Bjokkmax. 



[Trauslated from the Swedish.] 

T). His Royal Majesfifs firacions regulations coHcerniiif/ the manuf/ement of the pnWc forests 
within, the Kingdom. Given at the Palace of Stockholm, June 29, 186G. 

We, Charles, with tlie grace of God, the King of Sweden, Norway, &c., &c., make 
known that, whiKas ihc rsialcs of the Kingdom in their humble letters of February 
16, 1858, and iSOvcnilx i :!0, l-^(i:;, have made known the principles according to which 
the public forcstts of the Knigdom ought to be managed, we have found i)roper, having 
heard the opinion of our forest administration, and of ours and the Kingdom's Ex- 
chequer Collt^ge, (Kammar Kolleginm,) and canceling the royal regulation for the 
forests within the Kingdom of August 1, 1895, in regard to land and commons, Crowu- 
parks, and forests belonging to the Crown, as well as to forests belonging to dwelling- 
places and farms of the Crown, and, furthermore, altering other regulations in regard 
to the same subject, as far as contrary to these rules, in accordance witli the principles 
adopted by the estates of the Kingdom, to stipulate the following: 

Chapter I. 

IX IIKGARD TO CHOWX-PARKS. 

^^ 1. The crown-parks shall he retained to their original extent, and managed accord- 
ing to such i)lans which, based upon scientific rules and suited to different locations, 
sliall ]ironH>tr the conservation and the yield of the forests. Our forest administration 
shall sand ion tlie ]ilaiis of management and issue such orders as may be necessary for 
the proper care of tbesc forests. 

§ 2. The crown-jiarks shall be under the immediate care and management of the 
foi-est corps. The Crown shall defray the expenses for their guarding, and shall alone 
receive the income of the same, where not otherwise is stipulated. 

^ 3. Regulations issued in regard to crown-parks shall also be in force in regard to 
quicksand fields belonging to the Crown. 

§ 4. In regard to the Royal Deer Park at Stockholm, as well as commons belonging 
to the Crown and assigned to certain purposes, public establishments or institutions 
are separately stipulated. 

CliAPTI R II. 
IN REGARD TO COMMONS. 

Ci 5. Wliat is .stipulated in i^^ 1 in regard to crown-parks is also valid in regard to 
commons. 

§ 6. Part owners of commons will build and live within the district according to 
their part, where not in separate cases otherwise is stipulated. Our governor of prov- 
ince shall aDiiually fix and publish time and place when these part owners shall, by 
proxy from the parish and by balloting, select an administration, vrhich, in all cases 
concerning the common, shall exercise the decisive right of the part owners, when not 
otherwise is stipulated in the rules for the common. These rules are made out by the 
part owners and sanctioned by our governor of province as far as he shall find the 
the same, having heard the opinion of the district manager, corresponding to the 
laws and these regulations, as well as to- the adopted plan of the management of the 
conmions. 

§ 7. If the part owners wi«sli themselves to guard and manage the common they may 
do so under condition — 

1. That a plan of the management of the common has been approved of by our forest 
administration and that the preparing works necessary for the surveys are niade at 
the expense of the part owners ; and 

2. That regulations are issued and sanctioned for the con)mon as mentioned in the 
foregoing section. 



FOEESTS AND FOEEST-CULTUEE OF SWEDEN 25 

$ 8. If the \mvt owners gniird aiul manage tbe commons the respective forest officers 
shall, however, observe that what is prescribed for the management of the forest is 
properly observed. Should there be any neglect herein, and slionld the same not be 
corrected within the time specitied by our governor of province, or should larger felling 
be done on the common than permitted in the plan of the management, our governor 
of province shall order the common to be placed under the care or management of the 
forest corps; whcn-afrcr Mie forest administration, report hereof having been made, 
shall api)oiiit the icspfrrive manager of the "rivier" to talce care of the guarding and 
management of tlic common through foresters engaged for the purpose. 

iji 9. Sliould not the part owners guard and manage the conunon, this shall be done 
by the forest corps in the maimer above mentioned. 

'^ 10. Of the yield of the common sliall in the first place be paid out the salary of 
the foresters, the cost of the maintenance of their dwelling-places, forest cultivation, 
felling of forest products which are not sold growing, as well as other expenses men- 
tioned in the plan of management or esi)ecially ordered. 

§ 11. Thereafter shall the timber required for bridges and other buildings within the 
district be laid aside, and the remainder of the yield be annually dividedbetween the 
part owners, depending upon the decision of the part owners whether the products or 
the returns for the same shall be divided between them. Should the common be under 
the care and management of the forest corps, the yield, whether in products or money, 
shall be ]daced at the disposal of the administration of the common, who shall pay out 
and divide the same according to above-mentioned i^rinciples. 

§ 12. Should the common be managed by the forest corps " it shall be the duty of the 
"rivier" manager to annually, before the endof the month of July, render account for 
the past calendar year of not only the yield of the common in forest products, but also 
of the expenses for the common and of the funds he has received for the covering of 
the same. This account shall be made out in two copies, of which one is to be trans- 
mitted to our forest administration and the other to our governor of province. It 
shall be the duty of the common administration to transmit to our governor of prov- 
ince, before the end of the month of August, annual accounts of the yield of the com- 
mons and of the distribution of the same among the part owners, or how otherwise dis- 
posed of. Should the common be under the care and management of the part owners, 
this account shall also embrace a list of the felling as wellas of the expenses of the 
common during the past account year, and will in such a case be transmitted to our 
governor of province to the forest administration after the lapse of the thirty days 
mentioned in the following section. 

^ 13. The accounts mentioned in the foregoing section having been received by our 
governor of province, they shall be open for examination by the part owners at the 
meeting mentioned in section six and during thirty days at the time and place fixed 
and published by our governor of province. 

^ 14. Former instructions for a common respectively sanctioned may l)e in foiC(', pr(j- 
vided they correspcmd with these rules. Should an alteration be necessary, such may 
be done according to what is stipulated in section six for the issning of new regula- 
tions. 

Chapter III. 

IX HEGARD TO THE FORESTS BELOXGING TO THE KIXG'S DOMAIXS OR LET-OUT FARMS 
AXD ESTATES OF THE CROWN. 

§ 15. At the King's domains, the King's dairies, dwelling-places assigned to the 
finances of the States, (Statsverket,) and other farms and estates which are managed 
or let out for the account of the Crown, shall a regular forest management be intro- 
duced, provided they are not situated within the same territory as any private prop- 
erty ; or, should there be any other objection, they shall be surveyed where our forest 
administration, with regard to the extent and quality of the forest, shall find it suitable. 
The cost of the survey shall be paid out of public funds, where not in existing leases 
otherwise is provided. 

§ 16. Should the forest be very large and so located that the same may conxeniently 
be placed under the immediate care and management of the tuiest cnips, we will, upon 
the report of our forest administration, in each separate case, issue regulations there- 
for, and in such cases it shall be observed that sufficient forest is retained for household 
purposes, but the remaining forest, as now existing leases expire or the lessee will con- 
sent, shall be made into a crown-park, and managed according to Chapter I. 

^ 17. In all the leases issued hereafter for the estates of the Crown, the lessee shall 
engage himself to care and manage the forest according to the plan of management 
where such has been or shall be sanctioned with the right to ireely dispose of that 
yield of the forest even above what is required for household purposes; and when 
plans of management are made ont for such forests as will remain under the care and 
management of the lessee, a certain amount of forest rent shall be fixed therefor and 



26 FOEESTS AND F0EE8T-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

nipiitioiied anioiio- the conditions of tlie lease. It shall depend upon the opinion of our 
and the Kiiii;(loni\s Excbeqncr Collpg-e, (Kaminar Kolleginm,) or the authority under the 
can' and superintendence of which tlie estate is placed, wliether, aud under what condi- 
tions, the above right to dispose of the forest may be granted the present lessee for the 
remaining time of the lease. 

»5 18. When forests belonging to the estates of the Crown are placed under the man- 
ageuient of the lessee, it shall be the duty of the i-espective foresters to carefully watch 
over that the plau of management is followed aud to report all neglects of the same. 

Chapter IV. 
IN ijeCtAKd to forests belonging to the farms of public institutions. 

1^ 19. In regard to forests belonging to the farms and estates of churches, academies, 
hospitals, sohliers' asylums, and other public institutions, what is stipulated in Mom. 
1, §1 15, about district felling and other regular management, shall be in force, and the 
respective administration or authority who shall have the superintendence over such 
property ought to ajjjdy to onr forest administration to obtain the plan of management, 
who shall order the respective forester to make out such a plan and to transmit the 
sanu^ to the forest administration for approval, for which service he will be separately 
paid in accordance with the taritf. 

v^ 20. The plan of management for such a forest having been approved of, it shall be 
the duty of the respective forester to see to that the same is observed and to report to 
our forest administration all neglects herein, and also, when the farm is managed by 
lesse.i- or owner, to the administration or authority who superintends the same. 

^ 21. In regard to farms belougiugto public institutions, and which arc cultivated by 
right of possession, is stipulated in the fourth chapter. 

Chapter V. 

FOREST BELONGING TO OFFICIAL DWELLrNG-PLACES. 

§ 22. What IS prescribed in Mom. 1, ^ If), about district felling and other regular 
management shall be valid in regard to forests belonging to dwelling-placesassigned to 
civil, military, and clerical institutions. Where such forests have not been surveyed 
as far as funds assigned for the purpose will allow, or when the possessors or adminis- 
trations will defray the expenses for the same, the most suitable plau of management 
shall be adopted and onr forest administration shall appoint a respective forester who, 
being separately i>aid for his service according to the tariff, shall survey and make out 
the plan of management to be transmitted to our approval by onr forest aduiinistra- 
tion. In making out such a plau, it shall be taken into consideration that the annual 
reiiuircuients of the owner of forest and pasture are filled as far as possible, even if tlie 
increase of the yield of the forest should be delayed. 

v^ 2:?. Should the forest belonging to a dwelling-place be very much larger thaTi is 
r('([!iired for household purposes, we will, upon the propositiou'of our forest aduiiuis- 
tratioii, order the entire forestor a proper part thereof to be placed under the innnediate 
(■aie anil matiagement of the forest corps, as stipulated in regard to crown-parks; otlier- 
wise it shiill be the duty of the farmer to guard and manage the forest, thereby observ- 
ing the plan of nnuiagement approved of by the forest administration. 

^ 24. Until sucdi a regulated management as mentioned in § 1.") has been introduced 
in forests l)clonging to dwelling-places the owner may use the same for household pur- 
poses, when not a more extensive right has been granted him during his time of service : 
but thereafter may the owner, besides that he always shall enjoy that much of the 
incouH^ of the forest which is due to hira through his previous right aud what is neces- 
sary for the househ(dd purpo.ses, if the forest is placed under his own care, receive a cer- 
tain amount of the yield, which amount may, according to the greater or smaller ex- 
penses for the care of the forest, be fixed up to half the amount of the yield above 
^vhat is reipiired for household purposes. In regard to how much of the yield of the 
forest sliall be the owner's, a regular management having been introduced, our forest 
administration shall, before the plan of manngcnicnt is ai»i)r(>ved, transmit to us their 
humble luoposirion, whereupon we, having learned the o[)inion of the respective par- 
ties, will deciiU", separately in each case. 

Ont of the returns from forests belonging to dwelling-places shall first and foremost 
the exi)enses for its care be covered; but money advanced for the survey only be paid 
back in the proportion the dweller shall receive all he requires for household purposes. 

The returns of the yield of forests belonging to dwelling-places which do not go 
to the dweller sliall be disposed of at military dwelling-places by the direction for the 
same. At clerical dwelling-places it shall be used in conformity with the royal regula- 
tion of July 11, L-()2. to regulate the income of the clergy; and shall, at the dwelling- 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 27 

places for the jijovcrnor of province, go to the funds for rcoiihitinj:^ the sahiries of the 
governor of jjrovince, but in all other cases to the forcst-plaiiting funds. 

6 'if). What is stipulated in the foregoing section concerning the disposal of the re- 
turns of forests belonging to dwelling-places shall be in force with regard to the com- 
pensation the dweller will receive when oak-trees are felled on the farm for the account 
of the Crown. 

(> 26. When the parishioners shall build or repair the church or the house of the par- 
son, they may take the necessary timber from the forest of the parsonage or other 
farms belonging to the same, as far as survey may be held, according to the .approved 
plan of management, without infringement upon the right of the owner to the returns 
of the forest. 

^ 27. When forest belonging to a dwelling-place, according to § 23, is managed by 
the forest corps, the manager of the "'rivier " shall account for the same, in the manner 
prescribed for commons in § 12, Mom. 1; and our governor of province shall, after the 
dweller has seen of'the account, transmit the same, and tlie surplus money for military 
dwelling-places, to the direction for the same, and for the clerical ones to the respective 
domkai)itlet, (cathedral chapter,) which authorities shall, when requested, handover 
to the dwellers their respective shares. 

In regard to the account of other forests belonging to dwelling-places, the authority 
who superintends the same will issue necessary instructions. 

^ 28. What-is stipulated in ^ 17 shall be in force in regard to military dwelling-p laces 
let out for the account of the salary-fund. 

Chapteu VI. 

IX REGARD TO FORESTS BEI^ONGIXG TO PUBLIC FAliMS CULTIVATED BY TENANTS. 

§ 29. The forest belonging to farms owned by the Crown and public institution may 
be used for household purposes, provided not otherwise stipulated by special permis- 
sion or prescriptions. However, in regard to crown-farms, our governor of province, 
and, in regard to other farms, the authorities under whose care they are placed, may, 
upon application, permit the owners to use the forest, even for sale, if they only ob- 
serve the plan of management approved for the same. 

^ 30. If such a special perniissidu :is mentioned in section 29 is granted, the owner 
shall apply to our forest administration for the jilan of management. The forest 
administration will then appoint a forest ofiScer, who is paid by the owner according to 
the tariff, to make out a plan of management, which is transmitted to the forest admin- 
istration for approval. It shall be the duty of the officers of the forest corps, as well 
as of the foresters, to see to that the plan of management is observed, and to report to 
our governor of province, or the authority who superintends the farm, any transgres- 
sion or neglect of the same ; and if such is the case in regard to crown-farms, our gov- 
ernor of province shall, if necessary, and until otiierwise decided, prohibit the use of 
the forest for other than household purposes. 

§ 81. In regard to the right of tenants of crown-farms, settlers and owners of settle- 
ments in the sis northern laens of using the forest over and above what is required for 
household purposes, is separately stipulated. 

Chapter VII. 

IN REGARD TO ADVANCES FROM PUBLIC FUNDS FOR FOREST SURVEYS. 

$ 32. There, upon humble proposition, we have found proper that the expense of the 
survey of such public forests which are not at ours and the Crown's innnediate dis- 
posal may be paid by advances from public funds, there shall the advances be paid 
back from the yield of the surveyed forest ; and for this purpose shall, in the first place, 
the returns from the sale of the timber which has been followed on the lines of survey 
be used ; if these means should not be sufficient, the balance will be gradually paid in 
out of the annual income from the forest above what is required for the care of the 
forest, and in regard to dwelling-places what the dweller needs for his household pur- 
poses. 

Chapter VIII. 

IN REGARD TO PASTURE AND HAY"-HARVEST IN PUBLIC FORESTS. 

^ 33. Pasturing and hay-harvesting may not take place in forests mentioned in 
these regulations, and for which plans of management are sanctioned, in any other 
way than prescribed in the plan of management, or in special cases permitted by the 
forest administration ; pasture or hay-harvest in crown-parks may be purchased for a 
certain time at public auctions ; of pasture which may be let out on commons, the 
administration of the same will dispose. 

3f c 



28 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

§ 34. If certain farms or communities have acqnirecl right to pasture or harvesting 
in public forests, eitlier by special resolutions or agreements, or if they have enjoyed 
the same as far as can be recollected, they will continue to do so until otherwise may 
be legally stipulated. 

Chapter IX. 

IN REGARD TO THE MARKING AND SALE OF FOREST PRODUCTS. 

§ 35. In all the forests mentioned in the regulations shall trees holding at the root 
five decimal inches or more in diameter be worked in the presci'ibed order by the 
respective " rivier " manager or forester before they may be felled ; and it shall be the 
duty of the party requesting the marking, or of the purchaser, to observe the rules 
which are prescribed by the respective foresters in regard to the felling and carrying 
away of such trees as well as of forest products which are not subject to marking. 
What is hereby stipulated shall not exist in regard to felling done in the prescribed 
order for houst^liold purjioses. 

§ 36. All sales of products from forests which are under the immediate care and 
management of the forest corps and from commons and dwelling-places shall be made 
at public auction, according to what is now or may in the future be stipulated. Time 
and place of auction, as well as conditions of sale, will be published by onr governor of 
province. 

§ 37. In regard to the marking and sale of forest product from crown-parks, surplus 
land and uusurveyed forests in the six northern hens is separately stipulated. 

Chapter X. 

GENERAL REGULATIONS. 

§ 38. At examinations or surveys upon which the right of private parties is depend- 
ing, the surveyor shall, after the plan of nianagfuicnt has been made out by him, 
acquaint the parties whose right is in question of the plan, and they shall, within 
■thirty days from being acquainted of the same, render their remarks to the surveyor, 
>who shall transmit the same, accompanied by his report, to our forest administration, in 
case it should not be what is properly called forest land, when the remarks, with the 
report of the surveyor, shall be transmitted to our governor of province, whose 
decisions shall be submitted to the exchequer college, (Kammar Kollegiura,) or any 
other corresponding authority, under whose jurisdiction the farm or the estate is 
placed. 

§ 39. Should the owner of a farm, or a place mentioned in the third, fourth, and fifth 
chapters, wish to cultivate the forest grouud belonging to the same, build a cottage, or 
make a pasture-ground arable, he shall apply to our governor of province, who will 
decide the case, after he has learned the opinion of the respective forest officer, and 
submit his decision to the exchequer college, or any other authority under the man- 
agement of which the farm is placed. No such permission ought to be given, should 
the same interfere with the approved plan of management, before the forest adminis- 
tration has had the opportunity to give its opinion in the matter. 

I 40. Should the owner, tenant, or lessee of a public farm or place transgress the 
right of using the forest, afforded him by these regulations and the approved plan of 
-management, he will be punished as far as lawful felling of forest, according to the 
twenty-ftmrth chapter of the penal laws. 

§ 41. If the owner or lessee of a dwelling-place, royal farm, or other manors men- 
tioned in the third chapter, shall neglect to do such necessary works for the care of the 
forest as are prescribed in the approved plan of management, and continues not to 
mind the same, our goveruor of province will order the work to be done through the 
forest corps, and at the expense of the neglectful party. 

§ 42. The officers and attendants of the forest corps, as well as the forester, shall 
have the same right to report such neglects as mentioned in § 40, and to seize unlaw- 
fully felled limbs. Such timber will be sold at auctions, and the seizer will receive 20 
per cent, of the net returns of the sale. The remainder shall be delivered to the insti- 
tute to which the farm belongs, if the unlawful felling had been done on farms as 
mentioned in Chapter IV, but otherwise to the forest-planting funds, except if the 
unlawful felling has been done in forests belonging to farms assigned to the army, 
• clergy, or the governors of provinces, when the stipulations in ^ 24 about the disposal 
■ of thie share of the returns of the forest which do not belong to the owner shall be in 
Tforce in regard to the above-mentioned surplus money. When a seizure is made the 
>seizer shall immediately report the case to our forest administration, as well as to our 
respective governor of province ; as for military farms to the respective chief of the regi- 
ment or corps. Neglect of these regulations, in regard to forests belonging to clerical 
'farms, shall be reported by the respective parishioners. 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 29 

§ 43. Should any one be dissatisfied with the decision of our forest administration 
concerning the management of the public forest, he may appeal to our department of 
finauce, but not later than before 12 o'clock on the sixtieth day after he was 
acquainted of the decision. 

^S 44. These regulations shall be in force from the 1st of July, 1867. 

Which all whom it may concern shall have to obey. 

In witness whereof, we have hereunto set our hand and caused our royal seal to be 
affixed. 

The Palace of Stockholm the 29th June, 1806. 

CARL. [L. 8.] 

J, A. Gripenstedt. 



[TransLation from the Swedish.] 

6. His Royal Majesty's gracious rer/nlations concerning the survey and sale of prodncis of the 
forests in the Imns {counties) of Stora Kopparberg and Norrland, bvlongitig to the Crown. 
Given at the palace of Stockholm, December 21, 1865. 

We, Charles, with the grace of God the King of Sweden, Norway, &c., make 
known that, whereas the estates of the kingdom have requested us, in gracious letter 
of the 28th of October, 1860, to take into gracious consideration whether or not the 
principles stipulated in gracious letters of April 11, 1844, and November 24, 1857, for 
the surveys of the forests of the crown-lands in the liens of Westerbotten and Norr- 
botten, also ought to be in force for the hens of Wester-Norrland, Jemtland, Getieborg, 
and Stora Kopparberg. and, furthernuuc, in gracious letter of Noveml>er 30, 1863, have 
proposed that, in regard to the right of using the foi'est over and above what is re- 
quired for household i)urposes, which tenants of crown-lands, settlers, and owners of 
settlements in the six northern hens ought to have, they should be maintained in the 
more extensive privileges which they, compared to other tenants, hitherto have 
enjoyed, but under that control which, for preventing of misusage. might be prescribed ; 
tluis we have, having heard the opinion of our forest administration and of ours and 
the kingdom's exchequer college, (Kammar Kollegium,) found proper to cancel our 
above-named gracious letter and all that is stipulated in regard to the survey of the 
above-named lajns, and to sanction the following : 

§ 1. All felling of forest, except for household purposes, as mentioned in § 6, on the 
territories of crown-lands, or settlements on crown-parks, surplus land, unsurveyed 
forests, and on the land for which the saw-mills i>ay forest rent in the hens of Stora 
Kopparberg and the six liens of Norrland, shall in the future be done first after they 
have been surveyed by a respective forest officer. 

^ 2. The following will have exclusive right of marking trees for felling : 

i. Owuers of crown-lands and settlements, in regard to the territories which have 
been allotted to them by the surveyor or provisionally marked during the survey ; 

2. Owuers of tax-paying and freehold estate in regard to the territories provisionally 
marked out; 

3. Owners of crown-land and settlements, as well as owners of tax-paying and free- 
hold estate, whose land is surveyed or provisionally marked out, in reg.ard to a certain 
tract of crown-land, which generally, or where local circumstances tlo not require an 
exception, is calculated for single farms or settlements, a distance of one-eighth of a 
Swedisli mile in all directions from the dwelling; for smaller villages of not more 
than three families, a distance of one-quarter of a mile, and for larger villages one- 
third of a mile ; it shall thereby be observed that, if farms or settlements which do not 
together make a village are situated so near each other that certain ground should, 
according to the above-mentioned principles, belong to them all, they shall have th^ 
same right to survey ; and 

4. Owners of saw-mills in regard to the land assigned to them as compensation for 
the privileges of felling, whether it is divided into farms or paying tax or forest rent. 

§ 3. Unsurveyed dwelling-places shall also have exclusive right to'survey according 
to the foregoing section ; but in regard to the right of disposing of the marked timber, 
shall the regulations issued in this regard for similar dwelling-places be in force. 

^"i 4. For timber marked according to § 2, no stub-money or corresponding duty shall 
be paid to the Crown ; but the one who requests the making shall have to pay the cost 
of the same, according to the rules His Royal Majesty may prescribe. 

<S 5. Application for marking according to $ 2 shall be made to the respective forest 
otticer before the 1st of March the same year the marking is desired. The forest-officer 
shall thereafter, before the 1st of October of the same year, examine and mark the 
trees in the presence of the applicant, all in accordance with i&^\ 9 and 10. Beams and 
saw-timber which may be felled during the year shall be provided with tlie crown- 
mark. In regard to other kinds of timber, nuuking may be done for as many as five 



30 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

years ;it tlio satiio timo, and in snch a case it shall be decided how much and what kind 
"(it tinilicr may lie annually felled qu each part of the forest. Before the svirveyor 
leaves the plaee he shall give the applicant, free of charj^es, a record of the survey, for 
which he shall obtain a receipt. The cost of the survey sliall In- tntered in the record. 
Should the applicant be dissatisfied with the survey mentioned in tins section, he may 
appeal to our forest administration before 12 o'clock ou the sixtieth day from the 
time the surveying documents were handed to him. 

vS fi. Felling may also be done within the territories mentioned in ^ 2, as far as 
needed, for the household purposes of the farms, settlements, or dwelling-places. 

6 7. The timber from crown-parks, surplus laud, aiul that part of nnsurveyed forest 
to which no one has the exclusive right of felling according to § 2, shall be sold to the 
highest bidder. 

^ 8. For the purpose mentioned in the foregoing section the respective district direct- 
ors shall annually make out a felling project for each crown-park or other forest- 
land within their "rivier," according to the approved plan of survey and nwnagement, 
and to the knowledge of the (piantity of timber of other crown-lands mentioned in the 
foregoing section, and transmit th(^ same to onr governor of province before the 1st of 
April. Should private parties, companies, or commnuities wish to have their land 
surveyed, they shall apply, in writing, to the respective district director before the 1st 
of March the same year the survey is desired, and he shall, provided there be no rea- 
sonable objection, make out a felling project for the same. Should he not be sufti- 
ciently acquainted with the tract, he shall make a preliminary survey of the same 
at the expense of the applicant. 

^ 9. The felling ought to be so done as not to niin the forest, and that always the 
same number of trees, suitable for timber and deal, may be got every year. Full-grown 
forest ought not to be spared so long as to be unfit for use by being too old. In regard 
to this our forest administration shall give the respective district directors necessary 
orders. At the survey of forest-land Avhich has been ou fire the trees damaged by the 
same ought to be first felled. 

§ 10. The following kind of trees may be marked for felling: 

i. JIast and large timber trees. 

2. Trees suitable for beams and saw-timber, and which are 9 inches in diameter at 
the l.eight of 24 feet from the root. 

3. Crooked and short trees, which never can be suitable for beams or saw-timber of 
the above-named size. 

4. Leaved, wind-fallen, and damaged trees, as wells as stubs and roots, which may 
be used for making charcoal, tar, or potash. 

For account of privileged saw-mills, having territories assigned to them, may trees 
of a diameter of 8^ decimal inches at the top end be marked for felling. 

§ 11. In regard to the value and fitness for different purposes of the trees intended 
for sale, they shall be thus classified in the })laus for felling : 

1. Mast and large timber-trees. 

2. Growing trees for beams. 

3. Growing trees for larger saw-timber. 

4. Growing tiees for smaller saw-timber. 

b. Trees having been on fire or otherwise slightly damaged, suitable for beams. 

6. Trees having been on fire or otherwise slightly damaged, suitable for larger saw- 
timber. 

7. Trees havingfbeen on fire or otherwise slightly damaged, suitable for smaller saw- 
timber. 

8. More damaged and wind-fallen trees for beams. 

9. More damaged and wind-tallen trees for larger saw-timber. 

10. More damaged and wind-fallen trees for smaller saw-timber. 

11. Loads of timber tor nianutactnring purposes. 

12. Loads of forest inodncts for making charcoal, tar, or potash. 

Trees being, 24 feet from the root, 14 decimal inches in diameter are considered suit- 
al)le for beams. 

Trees being, at the same height, 9 to 14 decimal inches in diameter are suitable for 
large saw- timber, and those having a diameter of 8^ decimal inches at the height of IG 
feet for smaller saw-timber. 

One load of timber for manufacturing purposes is equal to one-third of a "fanin," or 
Swedish cord of wood of 144 cubic feet, outside measure. 

§ 12. In making out plans for felling, the surveyor shall divide the territories to be 
surveyed in certain felling districts according to the locality and quality of the 
forest, and, besides, propose the way by which the timber may be most conveniently 
transported. 

^ 13. It shall be the duty of our governors of provinces to arrange the auction-sale 
of the timber as sot)n as in receipt of the plans and guided by the proposition of the 
district director, transniitte<l to them, to stipulate the conditions of sale at the auc- 
tion, however, without fixing a lowest price. Our governors of provinces shall espe- 



FORESTS AND FOEKST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 61 

cially see to that a suitable part of the timber felled within each district is offeied fur 
sale in smaller lots of r>0 beams and 100 saw-timber or loads. 

^ 14. Shonld the felling project embrnce a tract where the owner of saw-mill is en- 
titled to fell trees, he shall be made actinainted with the same through the care of our 
governor of province before the auction is publisluHl, and the. owner shall within a cer- 
tain specified time inform within which tract he prefers to get the number of trees or 
saw-timber to which lie is entitled by the privileges of the mill ; and this onglit to be 
separated from what is going to be sold and assigned to the mill against the payment 
of the fixed stab-money. 

§15. It shall be the duty of onr governors of provinces to have niarking-lists made 
out immediately aft^ir the" auction and in accordance with the project for felling and 
the records of the auction ; according to these lists the respective officers execute the 
niarking. Our governors of provinces shall manage so that the lists are delivered to 
the district directors if possible l)efore the 1st of June. 

$ 16. The district officer shall mark the sold timber according to the lists, thereby 
observing that when several persons have purchased timber within the same tract the 
latter are as equally favored as possible in reg'ard to the facilities of transporting the 
timlier. All trees intended for beams and saw-timber shall be provided with the crown- 
mark, and the district officer ought to mark out the different tracts assigned to the 
different p\irchasers. Onr forest administration shall besides give the foresters all the 
detailed insfrnetions necessary for the marking and the felling of trees. 

\S 17. Ench survey shall embrace crown-parks and other territories for which a sepa- 
rate ))roject has been made out. At least fourteen days before each survey the same 
shall be pu'olished from the pulpit of the parish church and the time named when the 
surveyor may be expected to each seY)arate tract. The next Sunday after a survey, it 
shall also be published from the pulpit that the same is finished. Should any one con- 
sider the surveyor having infringed upon his right according to ^ 2, or unjustly dis- 
tributed the timber between the respective purchasers within the same tract, he n«ay 
ainte-al to onr governor of province not later than 12 o^-lock on the tift(*enth day after the 
last-named publication, in consev'^nence whereof no felling of the marked timber shall 
take place until the above-mentioned fifteen days have elapsed. All surveys ought to 
be finished if possible before the 1st of October every year. 

^ 18. Marked timber ought to be felled and carried away from the forests of the 
Crown before the Lst of June the year next after the survey ; however, our governor 
of province shall, when fixing the condition of the auction-sales, or upon special ap- 
plicatioi], and after having heard the oi)ii)ion of the respective foresters, grant a longer 
time for this ptirpose, but not move than five years from the time of the survey, of 
which fact the i-espective foresters ought to be informed. Should the purchaser neglect 
Lis duties in regard to the above, he shall forfeit his right to the timber. 

§ 19. Should our forest administration find that a crown-park for which the plan of 
survey and management is made out may during a longer period of years yield a 
larger number of beam and timber trees, the right to fell a certain number of trees 
after the annual marking has been done may be ottered for sale, the right to continue 
during a term of twenty years; and our forest administration shall make a contract 
with the purehaser to be submitted to our own gracious judgment. Such a contract 
nmy not prevent the usual marking of other timber than those specially mentioned 
above. 

§ 20. When felling and carrying away of marked timber are done, the workmen ought 
to he provided with the marking-list, record of auction, or a special certificate of per- 
mission of our governor of province to show the Crown and forest officers, whenever 
rec] nested ; otherwise risking, to be ordereil to discontinue their work. 

Which all whom it may concern shall have to obey. 

Ill witness where<jf we have hereunto set our hand and caused our royal seal to be 
affixed. 

The Palace of Stockholm, December 21, 186.5. 

CARL. [L. s.] 

J. A. GlUPENSTEDT. 



His Royal Majesty's gracious rcgulatio}is in reyard to the eslaMisldng of cromi-parks in the 
hens of Stora Kopparherg and Horrland, and to certain rules to be observed at the separa- 
tion of common grounds inff> disitnct possessions {storskiften) and settlements in the above- 
mentioned loins. Given at ths palace of Stockholm, December 21, 1865. 

We, Charles, with the grace of God the King of Sweden, Norway, &c., make known 
that, whereas the states of the Kingdom at the Riksdag humldy reiireseuted the neces- 
sity of retaining suitable tracts of the crown-lands within the" hens of Stora Koppar- 
berg and Norrland as crown-parks, thus we have found proper graciously to stipulate 
the following: 

ij 1. Already existing surplus laud of the Crown, as well as they which arise from 



32 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

present divisions and " storskiften," shall, where such is suitable, on account of their 
being situated tooether, of the general quality of the forest ground and of the forest 
itself, fiicilities of lloatage, sale of forest products, demand for timber m the locality, 
and other similar circumstances, be retained and managed as crown-parks. 

§ 2. In order to ascertain the above-mentioned circumstances our governor of 
province in the hens of Stora Kopparberg, Getieborg, Wester-Norrland, Jemtlaud, 
Westerbotten, and Norbottcn, shnll, where such is not already done, have the place 
examined by a specially-appointed surveyor and officer of the forest corps, and humbly 
report to us upon tbe subject; whereafter we will graciously order which of these 
grounds shall be placed under the care and management of the forest corps. Has such 
a farm or settlement arisen from a previous survey, it shall be separated again from 
the crown-park. 

§ 3. When survey or " storskiften " is hereafter done in any parish, there shall also 
certain gTound be assigned to one or several crown-parks, provided such is necessary 
and there is suitable locality. At the survey shall, therefore, not only the ground 
which is particularly suitable for cultivation be assigned to new settlements or older 
settlements and fiirms, but it shall also be seen to that the ground which has less facil- 
ities for cultivation on account of the circumstances mentioned in ^ 1, and therefore 
suitable for crown-park, is properly separated from the property of private persons. 
The interest of the Crown shall, in this case, be guarded by the respective forester, 
and the surveyor shall, therefore, always call the former to the meetings held with 
the farmers for the division of the ground. Should he propose the establishing of a 
crown-park, the surveyor shall, after the survey and the map is finished, but before 
the final project to division or " storskifte " is made out and the same is executed, 
together with the forest-officers, make out a provisional project of places for one or sev- 
eral crown-parks, and submit the same to the judgment of our forest administration, 
who shall make the remarks they may have reason to make. The case is hereafter 
decided by our governor of province, together with the whole of the survey. 

^ 4. From unsntveyed forest may, before the general survey is done, certain ground 
be assigned for crown-parks, sliouid the forest administration find it necessary and if 
there is sufficient ground within the ])arish for already-established farms and settle- 
ments. In such cases shall our governor of province, at the request of our forest 
administration, se[iavate the ground in (piestion from neighboring farms and settle- 
ments, and shall tlureby also what is stiimlated in regard to the division of ground in 
other parts of the laiis uf Westerhotter and Norrbotten be in force for Lapland. 

^ 5. Old farms and settlements shall in the future, as heretofore, receive at divisions 
and "storskiften" th.it s]);iee of forest and ground to which they are entitled according 
to regulations; but should there be question about separation into a crown-park, the 
Ibrests of the farms ought to be so situated that the ciown-paik will receive natural 
boundaries of water or impediments, and be thus sejiarated IVom the private pro])erties. 
Should this not be possible, the farms may keep the pasture and forest suiHcieiit for 
household i)urposes within the crown-park, but their other forest property will have to 
be situated outside the erown-i)ark. 

What is ]u-escrilied in this section shall also be observed when, nnder general sur- 
vey, a eeitain i>ieee of ground is assigned to saw-mills, as a compensation for thi^ lost 
privilege nf felling trees, in ^accordance with our gracious letter to ouis and the king- 
dom's exchequer college (Kammar Kollegium) of Mayii', ISVJ. 

^ 6. The cost of the diti'ereiit surveys ineiitioued in \SvN "i and 4 shall be paid from 
the forest-planting funds, it depending ui)ou the leiiieseiitation of the forest adminis- 
tration and upon our special gracious judgnieiit whether, with regard to the surveys 
mentioned in ^ 4, some part of Avhat has been paid by the forest-planting funds shall 
be retuned from the funds assigned toward the general surveys. 

Which all whom it may concern shall have to obey. 

In wituess whereof we have hereunto set our hand and caused our royal seal to be 
affixed. 

The Palace of Stockholm, December 21, 1865. 

CARL. [l. s.] 

J. A. Gkipenstedt. 



Hi-^ Roiial ATrt/cs/i/'.'* gracious proclamation prohihiHii;/ nnc setHciiieiits for fhc present. Given 
at the palace of Stockholm, Ucccmber 2J, l5i65. 

Vie, Charles, with the grace of God the King of Sweden, Norway, &c., make 
known tliat, besides having, in consequence of the humble proposition of the 
estates of the kingdom when last collected, in regard to the forest management within 
the northern hens of the kingdom, under this day, transmitted to the estates of the 
kingdom now collected our gracious proposition with regard to altered regulations about 
the assignment to private parties of the crown-land in Norrlands and Stora Koppar- 
berg's hen, we have, in connection therewith, found proper graciously to stipulate 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 33 

that our cji'^cioiis Icttov of ^lay 25, 1860, to om-s and tlie kiiidom's exchequLT college, 
(Kaininar Koll<',<;iiiiii,) pioliihitinii; uew settlements upon surveyed snrphis land in the 
nortliern la'.ns, shall also exist for Stora Kopparberg's hen, and tliot, in regard to crown- 
lands for which survey not yet has been sanctioned, no permission to found new settle- 
ments upon such land will be at present granted. 

Which all w^honi it may concern shall have to obey. 

In witness whereof we have hereunto set our hand and caused our royal seal to be 
affixed. 

The Palace of Stockholm, December 21, 1865. 

CARL. [l. s.] 

J. A. GlUPKNSTEDT. 



[Translation from the Swedish.] 

7. His Royal Majestfi^s gracious regulations concerning the right to dispose of forests on such 
^'' skattehemman" (estates for ichich rent or tax is jxiid to the Croivn or to a private j)er son) 
as are created by settlements, nihich are leased from the Croivu, or hg such older settlements 
on ivhich the prescribed conditions of building and cultivating have not been duly fulfilled. 
Given at the palace of Stockholm, June 29, 1S()6. 

We, Charles, with the grace of God the King of Sweden, Norway, &c., make known 
that, whereas the estates of the kingdom, in writing of the 15th instant, have 
announced their approval of our gracious proposition of tlie 21st of December, last 
year, concerning amended directions in regard to the lease to private persons of the 
land of the Crown in the hens of Norrland and Kopparberg, we have fonud proper, 
in accordance therewith, graciously to sanction the following rules: 

§ 1. On " skattehemman," arising from settlements, of which hereafter the Crown may 
grant a lease, ttie owner shall have no other right to the forest of the estate than to 
take sufticient timber and fuel for household purposes, without survey, and after sur- 
vey and niarking by the Crown officers, to appropriate and sell all that, in addition 
hereto, luay be felled Avithout injury to the forest. Neither may, for the purpose of 
cultivating the soil, the forest be felled otherwise than above is indicated, unless the 
owner, as hereafter stated, has obtained special i^ermission thereto from the governor 
of the province. 

^ 2. What is prescribed in the foregoing section for estates arising from settlements 
on whicli the Crown may hereafter grant a lease shall also be in force for such estates 
arising from settlements on which lease already has been granted, and where the pre- 
scribed duties of building and cultivating have not been fultilled within the time speci- 
fied ; and our respective governors of the provinces shall, in order to ascertain whether 
such is the case or not, as soon as convenient, and at least within the time when, ac- 
cording to existing rules heretofore, settlements oiiglit to be iusjiccted, order an inspec- 
tion to beheld, in the order prescribed, at such srttlcm<Mits on which the Crown has 
granted the lease, before the issuing of the regulations, and The accord hereof to be 
transmitted to our governor of the province. Should at any scttlemcsnt the prescribed 
duties of cultivating and building not have been fulfilled within the time lieretofore 
specified, our governor of the province shall, by a special resolution, from which ajjpeal 
may be made in usual order, and where there can be no question of disixisstssion, de- 
clare that, since the settlement, when the duties of building and cultivatini; have b<-eu 
fulfilled at some future period, has been transferred to a copyhold estate, the owner 
will only have such right to the forest as is stated in \S 1. 

i^S 3. It shall be specially stated in all the resolutions by which a settlement is trans- 
ferred under the title of " skattehemman " or copyhold estate, Avhether the owner 
shall have full right to the forest belonging to the same or only enjoy the limited right 
mentioned in ^ 1 ; .this ought to be recorded in the ground-rent book. 

$ 4. For the survey and marking of such copyhold estate as mentioned in v^ § land 
2, shall our gracious regulation of December 21, 1868, concerning the marking and sale 
of forest products from the forests of the Crown in the laius of StoraKopparberg and 
Norrland be in force. The cost of the marking shall be paid according to the principles 
adopted therefor by our gracious letter to the forest administration of the 11th of May 
of the present year. 

^ 5. Should the owner of such copyhold estate, as mentioned in § § 1 and 2, wish 
to fell trees for the purpose of cultivation, over and above the marking for the year, he 
shall apply to our governor of the province, the application to be accompanied by the 
certificates of two creditable persons, as to the situation, extent, and quality of the 
ground, its fitness for cultivation, and of the time retjuired for the completion of the 
same. Our governor of the ]>rovince will, where further survey may be necessary, 
cause such a survey to be held by the respective officer, and at the expense of the ap- 
plicant. Should our governor of the province find proper to grant the application, he 
will fix a certain time within which the applicant shall have completed the cultivation, 



34 FORKSTS AND FOEEST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

in default of which the applicant will be suitably fined ; whereupon, the forest, having 
been duly marked, may be felled and used by the owner as he pleases. 

^ 6. Any owiun- of copyhold estate mentioned in § ^ 1 and 2 who shall infringe 
the right to the forest of the estate given him by this law will be punished as for un- 
lawful felling of forest, as per the twenty-fourth chapter of the penal law. The officers 
of tlu^ forest corps, as well as the foresters, shall be entitled to prefer charges against 
sucli oifenders, and, to seize unlawfully felled timber, the party who makes the seizure 
shall receive '20 per cent. ; the balance shall go to the forest-planting funds. 

Which all whom it may concern shall have to obey. 

In witness Avhereof we have hereunto set our hand and caused our royal seal to be 
affixed. 

The Palace of Stockholm, June 29, 1866. 

CARL. [I., s.] 

J. A. Gripenstedt. 



Hifi Royal Majesfjfs f/racioiis proelamntion roiicenilnf/ the emicelhig of the temporary prohihi- 
tion oqaiiist uriv sctthincnts, of December 21, 18G5. Giren at the palace t/ /Stockholm, June 
29, 1866. 

We, Charles, with the gi-ace of God the King of Sweden, Norway, &c., ni.ake 
known that, since we, under the 21st of December last year, in conuection with our 
gracious ]iroposition to tlu^ States of the kingdom, concerning, among other altered 
legnliitioiis ill regard tf) the leiise to private individnnls of the land of the Crown in the 
hens of Nmrhnid and Ko[ip.uberg, by gracious order of the same day,have temi)orarily 
piohibited the granting of permission to settle upon the crown-lands, on which the 
felling of forest not yet has been regulated, thus, and after the States of the kingdom 
luive announced, in writing of tlie 15th of this month, their consent to our proposition, 
and we, in consequence hereof, under this date, have issued gracious regulations 
concerning the right to dispose of the forests on such copyhold estates, which arise 
from settlements in which hereafter lease is gTanted by the Crown, or on such other 
settlements, for whieli the prescribed eultivafioii and building have not been fulfilled, 
thcrefdve, we liiive found proper to griicionsh eonimnnd the canceling of the above- 
n cntioiied i.K.liibition, that on the unl'elled forest of the Crown in the hens of Koppar- 
berg and NOi rhiiid, as well as on such remaining ground in the said hens, which have, 
after iiresciibed examination, been found unfit for crown-jjarks, settlements maybe 
granted td lariners, if suitable localities exist, and under condition that the rules already 
prescribed or graciously issued in the future may be observed. 

Which all whom it may concern shall have to obey. 

In witness Avhereof we have hereunto set our hand and caused our royal seal to be 
affixed. 

The Palace of Stockholm, June 29, 1866. 

CARL. [L. s.] 

J. A. Gkipkxstedt. 



Bis Royal Majesty'' s Qvadous commu iiicafion to the hoard of domains, Kammar Collegium,- 
Jitnc29, 1866, concerning the disposal of saeh remaining land, which cannot suitahly he used 
as crown-parks or for new settlements, &c. 

- Charles, &c., our grace, &c. Since we, under the 21st of December last year, 
proposed to the estate of the kingdom several new regulations in regard to the 
disposal of such snr])lus land or parts thereof, which are set aside by the surveys in the 
hens of Stora Koiiparberg and N<uTland, and found less suitable to bo retained as crown- 
parks or used for new settlements, on account of their being not suitable for cultiva- 
tion ; and as the estates of the kingdom, in humble writing of the 15th of this nionth, 
have announced their approval of what we graciously have proposed, therefore, we 
have, in accordance herewith, and with regard to the opinion the honorable house of 
peasants has expressed coucerniiig reindeer-pastures, and localities for which the rent 
is paid in butter, found proper graciously to stiimlate that, with exception of what is 
called reindeer-pastures, the disposal of which for other purposes we do not think ought 
to be considered at present, such surplns laud in the hens of Stora Kopparbei'g and 
Norrland which otier no inducements for cultivation, and which, either by being irreg- 
ular tracts within and between the territories of villages and fai'ins, or otherwise by 
its (lualilieations not suitable to be retained as crown-parks, shall, according to our 
ojiinion in each separate case, either where certain farms or villages use itastnre-grouiul 
against butter-rent, be joined to these farms without purchase-money, but with increase 
of the ground-rent, in such manner as the survey regulations prescribe, or be liable to 
forest-reut according to the gracious regulations of June 28, 1775, and the gracious let- 



F0KEST8 AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 35 

ter of December 5, 1780, about the taxation in Savolax aiul Rarelen, and be sold with 
the rij^bt of ownership to the highest bidder, with duty for tlie purcliaser, if the laud is 
used as pasture against butter-rent, to leave the posstissors undisturbed in their right 
to pasture and necessary fuel, as well as to timber, for such houses and fences as are 
necessary for the use of the pasture-ground. In both these instances, however, shall the 
future private owner of the laud in regard to the right to use the growing wood sub- 
mit to the same rules which are prescribed for owners of such farms as arise fnmi set- 
tlements hereafter leased from the Crown, in accordance with our gracious regulations 
issued under this day. 

And we command our governor of the laus of Stora. Kopparberg, and Narrland, 
when rendering their humble proposals in regard to the future disposal of surplus 
lands, to take into consideration if the same or parts thereof may be thus (pralirted as 
to be disposed of in either of the tAvo above-mentioned ways. 

This to all whom it may concern to obey, au<l we comraeud you to God Almighty. 

The Palace of Stockholm, June 29, 186(3. 

CARL. 

J. A. Gripenstkdt. 



His Royal Majcstifs gracious Utter to the board of domains (Kammar Co7Ief/iitm) of JHne29, 
1866, concerning the transferring to the forest administration the care and management of the 
forests ivithin the kingdom, hitherto committed to the charge of the board of domains. 

Charles, &c., &c.. Our Grace, &c., &c. Since our forest administration in writing, 
dated the 31st of last March, humbly inquired whether the time lias not arrived for the 
transferring to them of the administration and management of tlie forests which 
hitherto has been committed to you ; and you have declared in your rei>ort of the 27th 
following April, that the business in questi<m and which partly, according to ^ 5, mom. 
10, and § 8, mom. 18, of your instruction of the 16th of February, 1838, but principally, 
by the instruction for the forest and chase corps of the 16th of March, said year, still 
belonged to you, but ought, according to the above-mentioned gracious letter of the 21sb 
of January, 1859, to be transferred to the forest administration, consisted of : 1. Examin- 
ation our sanctioning of felling-districts and jdan for the management of crown-parks and 
commons, according to M ; ''^- Similar examination of propositions in regard to tli<^ forest 
economy on qnicksand fields, according to ^S 9 ; 3. Examination of projects lor cultivating 
theerown-parks, aecordingto§31, whichreiiuired theassignmeutofmoney from the forest 
planting funds ; and 4. TJie taking of sncli uieasuves as were prompted by the annual 
rei)orts of crowu-parks and commons, transinitteil to you according to § 40, all in the 
last-named gracious instruction ; and, besides, huinlily stated tliat, in your opinion, 
there would be no objection to the transferring of the said business to the forest admin- 
istration ; thus we have issued under this day gracious regulations in regard to the 
economy of the common forests within the kingdom, according to which it iyelongs to 
the forest administration to examine and sanction the plans for the maiiageinent of 
the common forests and to issue all other instructions necessary for their management 
in connection therewith found proper to decide, that the forest management now being 
your ofiBce, according to special sections of your instruction of February 16, 1838, and 
to the instruction for the forest and chase corps within the kingdom, of March 16, 
the said year, in the future shall be exercised by the forest administration, antl that 
it consequently shall be your duty to deliver to the forest administration documents 
and maps belonging to the forest" economy within the kingdom, now in your posses- 
sion. 

This to all whom it may concern to obey, and we commend you to God Almighty. 

The Palace of Stockholm, June 29, 1866. 

CARL. 

J. A. Gripenstedt. 



IV. — Till': PROFITS or forest culture on a small farm. 

In a little pamphlet of 64 pages, entitled "Directions in Forest Culture for the Peas- 
antry," by Mr. C. A. T. Bjoikman, secretary of tlie royal administration of forests, pub- 
lished in 1870, under the patronage of tlu- patriotic society of Sweden, are some prac- 
tical suggestions under this head, of which the following is an abstract. Mr. Bjork- 
man is also an instructor in the Royal Forest Institute, and has had upward of twenty 
years' practical experience in forest culture. 

On one tunuland (1.22 acres) of medium fertile laud closely grown with pine and 
spruce of from twenty to one hundred years of age, forest grows yearly to an average 
amount of half a faiun of wood, (1 famn nearly a cord,) or 50 Swedish cubic feet. On 
a little forest of 50 such tunnlands the yearly growth is 25 famns. When one without 
damage is able yearly to consume as much as the forest during the same time grows, 



36 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

he tbus obtains for all the future a yearly cousuniptiou of 25 faiuus, consisting of timber, 
fuel, fuuciug, &c., on the condition, however, that the consumption ia suit;ibly done; 
that no trees are here and there pulled up ; also, that attention is paid to re-growth 
^vliere the forest has been cut away. To such production can further be added about 
."> famns obtained from branches and stumps, so that the amount rises to 30 famus. 
"Where the consumption is thus regulated through the whole forest, the new growth 
of trees on the place cleared will be of larger size, and if they are close there will be 
an increase of fertility from the abundance of leaves, and au additional growth may be 
reckoned on of 10 fannis ; so that the whole timber-production of every sort for home 
need is augmented to 40 famns. On the contrary, by bad management, the growth 
from year to year diminishes. 

The difference between regulated or economical management of a forest, and the 
contrary, in money valuation may be stated as follows : 

10 saw-logs, at 20 cubic feet, (Swedish) 200 

20 building timbers, at 15 cubic feet, (Swedish) 300 

10 1o;h1s t.'iiciug, at 33^ cubic feet, (Swedish) 333 

500 jM.l.'s or stakes, at 20 cubic feet (Swedish) per 100 100 

20 famns of wood 2, 000 

2 loads mechanical timber 67 

Swedish cubic feet 3,000 

or 30 famns. 

With the forest economy now in use, and if the forest from the beginning was not 
richly needed, it can be taken without exaggeration that timber fails after the space of 
twenty-five years. The purchase of such at an average price of 3.50 rix-dollars costs 
afterward over 100 rix-dollars a year besides hauling. After a further Inyi.se of five 
years <'ven poles are lacking, which, at 4 rixdollars per 100, cost 25 rix-dollars. When 
ten years more have passed the remaining trees are all too brushy and damaged to 
be serviceable for fencing, which, when the same has to be bought at a price of about 
3 rix-dollai-s a load, or 30 rix-dollars for ten loads, it will be seen a yearly outlay of 
over 150 rixdollars has been laid on the farm ; a burden which, when finally even 
inechauical timber, and for the most part fuel also, is wanted, is further increased at 
least 50 rix-dollars, so that the expenses for timber for domestic use amount to 200 
rix-dollars; a sum which comprises the interest on 4,000 rix-dollars wherewith the 
value of the estate has thus been diminished, while the owner has had considerable 
outlay yearly in procuring domestic timlier. In other words, the proper rearing and 
■care of a forest is the creation of a permanent capital or fund the interest of which 
can be securely relied on. 

v.— How A PLAN OF SYSTEMATIC FOREST ECONOMY CAN ]JE CARRIED OUT ON A SMALL 

FARJt. 

The so-called "tract-cutting," whereby consumption for the year is confined to a 
certain given clearing, usually eomitri^iug ,,',;, or y^u of the forest, is undoubtedly the 
most desirable manner of (■niisniniiig in smiiewhat larger forests, where annual cuttings 
contain all of the different suits of timber and wood which are required for home use. 
But in small forests, such as are here chietly considered, where the auuual cutting can- 
not be exi»ected to supply the home wants, tract-cutting must be practiced, with cer- 
tain modifications, because it may happen, for example, that when one particularly 
needed heavy timVter the annual cutting would include none other than fencing, and 
rice ro-.sfl. This modified plan is called regulated thinnnifj, being the same that is pre- 
scribed in the circular of the forest administration of June 20, 1867, for such lesser 
public forests as are not adapted to tract-cutting. 

As all economy ought to be based on a plan, we will now see how one should proceed 
to devise without cost an inexpensive plan of regulated forest economy. Taking, for 
exanijile, a forest of fifty tunnlands, (sixty acres,) one must fir.st examine and fix in 
mind where the old, n\iddle-aged, and young forest "bestands" are situated, or, if they 
are 1>lended, where each of tlie different ages preponderate. Old forest may be desig- 
nated as that one hundred years old or older, the niiddb-aged fioni forty to one hundred 
years old, and the young under forty years. In ease it has not already been done, the 
"forest is surveyed and marked out into three divisions, according to tlie three age 
classes, and also mapped ; but if the trees are so uiixed that the forest cannot be classi- 
fied according to age, it should, nevertheless, be divided into three somewhat equal 
parts. Natural fornuitious, hills, swamps, or the like, are to be taken in preference as 
boundaries of the divisions. [Here are given details as to the method of measuring 
the forest.] The area of the forest being ascertained, one should deduct therefrom the 
unproductive i)arts — mar.sh, hill or ledge— so as to know really how nniny acres will 
bear forest. Then, iuasnuich as every tunulaud (1^ acres) of medium forest grows as 
lunch as i famn, or 50 cubic feet, so it is evident that for every two tunnlands one may 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 37 

consume 1 famn, or 100 cnhic feet, or as much as 25 fanins, on an average, good forest 
of 50 tnnnlands of actual forest land which grows young, middle-aged, and old best- 
ands. If the forest is thin or slow-growing, some abatement shonid be made, so that 
one calculates, for example, only 40 cubic feet on a tnnuland, or, as is the same, 2 famns 
for every 5 tunulands, when the yeaily consumption on a iforest of 50 tunnJands can 
amount to 20 famns. Regard should be had to the gaps or bare places, anii that the 
annual yield of the forest is not overestimated. The principal consumption should be 
confined to that one of the three divisions of the forest which contains the oldest trees, 
and wliich ought to be sutKcient for a third part of the rotation period, namely, forty 
■"ears. 

How consumption shall Ic effeeled with a view to regrowfh hy self-seedhuj. — Before the con- 
sumption is undertaken one ought seasonably to estiuiate what timber antl wood is 
needed for the year, so that the cutting can be well arranged, and that he sbaJl not 
need to send inconsiderately at the last moment to the forest to cut. Oue should al- 
ways seek to regulate the cutting so as to leave forests growing between the place of 
cutting and any naked or treeless surface. If the forest borders on an ox>en field or 
lake the cutting should commence at the opposite side, so as to protect the bordeis of 
the clearing from wind and storm, and thus avoiding windfalls. 

With the exception of seed-trees left at a distauce of 5 to B and at the fortbest 10 
yai'ds between the ends of the branches, all trees and bushes should be cut, inasmncb 
as the bushes that are left are for the most injured by bruising, and cannot become suit- 
able trees, and besides they produce too much shade. The branches and tops, if left, 
are food for forest-fires, and should be ba?3led away. On the other hand the finer twigs 
are spread over the cleared place so that the leaves during the following summer may- 
increase the mold. In course of two or three years one finds that many pine and spruce 
plants have come up. In five or six years after the consumption, regrowth is usually 
so advanced that the seed-trees can then be cut. 

After consumption in the maninsr stated has commenced, it is n»ost desirable, in the 
cuttings which are made the following years, to extend the gap made throvjgh the first 
year's consumption, in doing which one proceeds in the direction from whence the 
heaviest winds usually come. On the other liaud, one should spare the forest at the 
other border of the gap, which already has been somewhat teujpered to the storm, and 
thus protects the forest lying behind. * * » 

Now, if oue proceeds in this manner during the forty years allotted to the first 
livision, observing strictly not to consunie more than what, according to tb© before- 
)rdered calculations, he has found that the forest can bear, be will, at the close of that 
leriod, have consumed all the forest which at the beginning was on the first division ; 
out in place thereof he has obtained a regrowth consisting of a new, strong, and close 
young forest up to the age of forty years. Meantime the second division, which was 
spared from all other cutting than such trinuning as was needful for increasing the 
forest's rapid development, has grown and increased so that consnnii>tion tliei-eof can 
begin, and be continued during the next forty yeare. At tlie expiration of this period 
consumption likewise goes over to the third division, which .shall equally be sufficient 
during forty years ; whereupon the whole forest has thus been gone through, and a 
uQw forest reared, so that ripe forest can begin to be consumed at the end of the one 
hundred and twenty years (rotation period) where the cutting on the first division had 
its beginning. 

In respect to forests in the northern sections of the kingdom, where timber is cut for 
the market, it is to be x'emarked that such trees fire to be selected as are ripest, wher- 
ever they are, leaving however abont twenty to tliirty seed-trees per tunnland. 

How pruniiHj should be done. — While consumption is going on as above mentioned, oh 
the first division, the two other divisions must not be left out of view. In these divis- 
ions tliere usually occur ci"owded or oppressed trees, which, though approxmiately of 
the same age as the others, nevertheless have been overgrown by them. These ought 
to be removed, in some cases because they are dead and fallen, in others iH-^anse they 
prevent a free development of the growing ti'ees. This is called help pruning. So' 
there are usually found in the young forest older trees, which, through their wide- 
extended branches, overshade it and hinder its growth, or are too old to be able to> 
remain till the surrounding young forest is ripe. These trees ought as well to be con- 
sumed, which is done through the so-called prcparbuj pruning or dressing. Pruning 
begins on the second division where it joins the first, proceeds through the third, and 
when that is finished begins on the new-grown forest of the firet. Hereby one-twen- 
tieth of the forest is yearly hvlp-pritned. Oue, however, is not obliged to prune every 
year if he has not need of such smaller timber and wood, but may do it every other or 
every third year according to need, when, of course, the extent of the tract pruned 
will be increased. 

Till one acquires experience he must prune sparingly. Especially must pruning be 
sparing on light soil. * * * Pine forest is generally more pruned than spruce. 
Where the forest is already thin, all pruning must be postponed. 

In clay-bound soil, which has the preference for spruce, the pines ought principally 



38 FOEESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

to bo pininetl off, if such are found in oousidenible number, ami the rererse on sandv 
soil where pine shoukl be the prevailing kind. Where birch occurs too plentifully in 
fir forests it should be pruned out and only one here and there left. * * * Next to 
open field or lake, from which heavy winds are apprehended, one should leave a 
breadth of about fifty yards unpruned. The most suitable time for help-pruning in 
young forests is early winter, when the ground is frozen but heavier snows have not 
.\et fallen. Help-pruning yields on an average a revenue of about two famns per 
tunniaud. 

Preparatorxi or dressing pruning begius and continues only on the third division, and 
has for its object to effect an equal or harmonious forest bestand. 

Cleanivg-pnining is the removing of dead, injured, or sickly trees, and those scattered 
by windfalls, and should be done at the same time and place with the other prunings, 
however, before there is enough snow to greatly impede the work. If the windfalls are 
considerable there should be a diminution in the consumption of sound forest. 

PasUire. — Generally there are rocky, uuarabU' spots in a pasture, which should receive 
forest culture. For such places the white hinli is recommended especially, as its leaves 
make good fodder, although it is not to he d<Miie(l tliat the browsing injures the trees. 
The birch requires sixty years to attain its maturity. 

Marsheg shonhl be drained and stocked with the gray alder, which, although it be- 
longs to drier places, can grow on swampy tracts. Consumption can be had when the 
tree is twenty to thirty years old — " Handled ning i Skogs Skotsel for Allmoge," 3-66. 

VI. — Explanation of certain terms in Swedish forest science. 

Forest Cidiure (skogs skotsel) includes the I'aising of forest, its treatment during 
growth, and its consumption. 

By consiimpiion of foiest is understood the felling of trees in such a manner as to fa- 
cilitate the effort of nature to produce new forest in place of the former. 

Forest cuUlvati II g (^skogs odling) is the raising of forest by means of sowing seed by 
hand, or planting. 

High forest is that which is not iutended to be consumed till the trees have attained 
their maturity. 

Low forest is that which comes from shoots from the roots or stumps of former trees, 
and which may be consumed in a shorter time to give place to another similar crop — 
as, for instance, timber for hoops, hop-poles, and the like. 

notation jjcriod. The time required, commencing with the sowing, for a forest to grow 
and mature- 

Traet-cutting is the felling of such a portion of the forest as, according to a previously 
prepared plan, has been allotted for a year's supply, or such a portion as can be cut with 
due regard to the rotation period. 

Regulated thinning is a manner of consumption, or of cutting, which is generally prac- 
tised in forests where the trees in the same place are of different age. 

Bestand. This word, written in Swedish '• Ix'staad," is borrowed from the German, 
and has a meaning in forest nomenclature for which there seems to be no corresponding 
English word. The original German word will therefore be adopted in this paper. 
The bestand of a forest means, in one sense, a group. There may bo several hestands in 
the same forest, though the forest consists of only one sort of trees. If in a forest there 
is a cluster of trees of the same age, and difterent from its neighbors, that cluster is a 
hestund. Or if there is a body of trees of particular closeness, that body is spoken of as 
such a hestand. In short, by bestand is undei-stood every part of the forest which, through 
variety, age, closeness or growth distinguishes it from its surroundings. The bestand 
in said to be clean when it consists of ouly one variety of trees, and mixed, when it com- 
prises two or more. If these varieties are divided into groups, the bestand is group-wise 
mixed. Tlie sort which occurs in greatest number is called the prevailing, and the 
others suboi-dinatc. With regard to age the bestand is called equal when all the trees 
are about equally old, and unequal when this is not the case. The bestand which con- 
tains enough trees to att'ord full increase is entitled thick, or close ; when the reverse, 
the bestand is more or less thin. 

VII. — Forest science as applied in sweden in the cultiva- 
tion OF THE OAK AND CERTAIN OTHER TREES. 

[What follows below iu relation to growing tlie oak, the larch, the 
beech, and the pine, also as to blending forest bestands, is compiled 
from the Swedish work by Mr. BJorkman entitled " Hand book on For- 
est Cultnre," an octavo volnme of 305 pages, illustrated, and published 
in 1868. Another standard Swedisii work is the " Text-book on Forest 
Science,'' iu two volumes, by C. L. Obbarius, published iu ISio.] 



rOEESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 39 

1. Condition.^ which operaie on the treatment of the oak. 

Aud first, .90(7 end situation. The oak covets a deep, mold-ricb, clfty soil, which 
should be mixed v.'ith euongh sand for the free dovelopnieiit of the roots. Of all tlie 
more common forest trees, the oak has the greatest demand of deep and good soil, and 
can, therefore, with as little advantage be cultivated ou rocky hill tracts, with their 
soil, as on lesin sand. Where sand is bountifully mixed with mold, the oak can indeed 
succeed, but it is then thought to produce less valuable timber. An exception to this 
rule has been noticed with respect to oaks grown on the sandy soil of the island of 
Oland, the timber of which is ])articnlarly strong; whereas oak timber grown on the 
good soil of Oniberg, East Gothland, has hccn poor. A moist situation is serviceable 
for the oak ; yet dry sitiuitions are preferable to wet. Southerly slopes are not favor- 
able growing-places. 

The oak plant is, in most respects, more hardy than the beech, yet it sutfers 
from frost, especially as its great ueed of light does not permit the leaving of 
enough seed-trees to exclude the frost, as their shade, during the necessary time, w^ould 
do more damage than frost. After it has once been oppressed, the oak plant can with 
difficulty be restored. 

Jlesfaiid. — Tlic strong self-pruning which takes place in the clean-oak bestand, and 
which, singularly, in a less fertile soil appears very early, results in a continual deteri- 
oration of the soil, while the fallen leaves, containing sharp, concentrated matter, ar« 
neither serviceable to form a good mold. After such deterioration of the forest laud 
has continued for a considerable period the soil becomes, by degrees, all the more im- 
jiotent to raise oak forest, which nmst finally give place to a kind of trees which are 
easier satisfied. This accounts for the fact that oaks are uo longer found on tracts 
that were once famed for their oak forests. As experience has shown that the oak, 
less than other trees, is able to retain the land at that grade of fertility which the 
tree itself requires, the rule has been adopted only to raise it iu company with such 
sorts of trees as are able to supply the needed fertility. 

The oak sufters slightly from storms, because ite stem extends 7 or 8 feet into the 
ground, and has strong side-roots to give it a firm hold. A spot iu some degree pro- 
tected is, nevertheless, the more preferable growing-place for the plant. 

notation period.— \]iu\t'Y favorable circumstances, the oak is said to attain an age of 
six hundred or seven hundred years. Ou poor and shallow soil, however, it begins to 
decay at middle age. On suitable spots, its age should uot be less than two hundred 
yeaxs. 

Seed-setting. — In a close bestand the oak becomes seed-bearing at eighty to one hun- 
dred, and in thinner bestands at fifty to eighty years of age, and as a free or open- 
growing tree, in the twentieth to the thirtieth year. On a suitable growing-place the 
seed-year can be reckoned on every fifth or sixth year, but on a poor soil, or iu a place 
otherwise unfit for the tree, the interval between the fruitful years is sojuetimes ex- 
tended to fifteen to eighteen years. 

2. Consumption and means of promoting refjrowth. 

Clean or naked clearing, accompanied with sowing or planting is the most useful 
manner of consumption for the oak. In consequence of the plant's persistent demand 
for protection, light, and free situation this species is difficult to be reared without 
considerable help of seeding or plating. Besides, only a few oak forests are now said 
to be left in Sweden of a character that can be relied ou for thorough self-seeding. 
But as the bestands of these few show that self-seeding has been possible for the oak, 
at least ou favorable spots for growing, the metliod of consumption with that object 
will here be described. 

Felling, accompanied with seed-trees. — As in consequence of the weight of the-acorn a 
tolerably close bestand of seed-oaks must be left standing, and also as the oak bestand 
is oftenest thinned by self-pruning, slashing, or the felling of a number at the same 
time, cannot be practiced unless the consumption occurs at the seed-year. The dis- 
tance apart of the branches of the seed-trees ought in general to be 10 to 15 feet, 
which distance, in case heavy frosts or a high growth of grass are expected, may be 
still further diminished if necessary ; wherewith one must observe that the seed-trees 
bestand does not become so close as to injure the plants by overshading. Clearing to 
admit light is done as easily as possible, say the second winter after locating the seed- 
trees, or when the plants are something over a year old. Frosty situation and grass- 
ground unite, nevertheless, to delay light clearing, still it would be equally uuadvisable 
to postpone this beyond the third winter. After the felling to admit light, by which 
a good part of the seed-trees are taken off, the distance between the remaining tree- 
branches sjiall be 30 to 40 feet. Final felling can be done when the plants are four or 
five years old, but must be postponed one or two years where the ])lants, in conse- 
quence ol the nature of the growing-place, are in need of long-continued, gradually 
diminishing protection, and where thus several fellings for light are needful. That 



40 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

whicli oftenest causes delay in consumption is the state of the market for oak timber, aud 
the greater or less demand there is for it, which circumstance may sometimes cause a 
delay of ten to twelve years between the placing of the seed-trees and final felling; 
suitable felling for admitting light occurring in the mean time in proportion as there is 
opportunity for selling timber. 

What has been said with regard to the beech in respect to leaving a few of the finest 
trees here and there for still larger growth, and as to preparing the felling for receiving 
of the seed, and sowing or planting where regrowth is needed, applies in the main to 
the oak; to which may be added that satisfactory self-sowing may be counted on only 
exceptionally, and that a clean oak bestand should not be sought for except that the 
endeavor on the other hand be directed to obtaining a suitable blending with other 
suitable sort of trees. 

3. Acorns. 

The bearing-year of the oak occurs on an average every seventh yelar. The acorn 
ripens earlier or later in October, according to the weather of the previous summer. 
The gathering is usually undertaken that month, but may be delayed until stronger 
frosts occur, after which the best acorns fall from the tree. Those which fall be- 
fore are for the most part prematurely ripe, or worm-eaten. Should no frost hasten 
tlieir falling, the acorns may be shook off by means of a pole, at the end of which 
two strong plus have been fixed half a foot apart to inclose the limbs. Acorns which, 
notwithstanding the shaking, do not drop, are unripe, aud of less value. It is not 
proiier to beat down the acorns from the twigs, as in that case the sort just mentioned 
are got. To collect them in a heap, a sail-cloth or carpet is spread under the branches. 
Unsound aud insect-injured acorns should, as ftir as possible, be immediately separated 
from them. Many old oaks often have unsound seed. 

After being gathered, the acorus are spread out on the floor, in a layer not exceeding 
half a fu<it in ile[>t)i, wliere for a week they are daily stirred. They can then be heaped 
to the depth of an additional foot, after which the stirring is done every other or every 
third day. After l>elug thus air-dried they are moved, in case they are not to be sown 
during the same autumn, to a place where they are to be kept over winter. Various 
means have been devised for preserving acorns. The nu)st usual, and perhaps the 
most secure, is to deposit them in a drj' place in the neighborhood of the dwelling on 
a half-a-foot-thick layer of straw, in a cone-shaped pile, to the height of five feet, formed 
by alternate layers half a foot deep, of acorus aud dry leaves or mass. The axle of the 
cone may be made of twigs, tied together, (and placed upright,) which serves to carry 
away the moisture from the interior of the cone, whose exterior may be covered with 
long straw to keep ofi:' the rain. Several differences prevail with regard to covering; 
sometimes e.arth is shoveled over it, and sometimes it is covered with fir twigs or with 
boards. That part of the twig- ventilator which extends above the cone can be capped 
with a coil of straw or with a suitable earthern vessel. A ditch should be dug around 
the cone to keep off the wet and vermin. Larger quantities can be stored in rows of 
cones of the same height. * * * Lesser quantities can be kept over winter in sand 
or saw-dust. In general acorns do not retain their growing quality longer than till the 
spring after they are gathered. 

Sound acorns should completely fill the shell, have yellowish white unspotted kernel, 
and milk-white sprout or bud. A cubic foot (Swedish) of acorns weighs from 30 to 35 
pounds, and numbers, when the acorns are of medium size, six thousand to seven 
thousand. 

[It appears that acorns are not liable to injury from frost after they are ripe. The 
crop of acorns on the large oaks in the vicinity of Stockholm were entirely spoiled by 
frost before they were ripe, in the latter part of September, 1871.] 

4. The sowing of acorns. 

Sowing is a proceeding requiring particular attention in the cultivation of the oak, 
especially if it is raised in any considerable number, which, however, should only ex- 
ceptionally be the case, inasmuch as timber-land in general is only in a few places 
and of small extent of that quality required for the oak's full development. 

To render the sowing successful, the ground should be loose or deeply mellow. 
Acorns are usually sown in the latter part of May, so that the plauts, which at first are 
sensitive to frost, may not come up before the spring frosts can be regarded as jjast. 
On places somewhat elevated aud dry the sowing can be done in the autumn, after the 
acorus have been gathered and air-dried. The earth-covering varies from 1 to 2 
inches, the thinner being employed on stiff soil, and the deeper on loose soil, and 
where the jtlauts would be liable to appear while there was danger of frost. 

Broadcast .sr/du*//.— Owing to the fact that inventions in ship-building in later tini'is 
have diminislied the demand for oak timber, and that broad sowing of acorns requires 
to be on a field about as thoroughly prepared as for grain, also that experience has 
furnished unmistakable proof that the cleau or exclusive oak bestand is insufficient 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 41 

to preserve the soil in that dej^ree of fertility requisite for snch trees, broad sowiiijf is 
pi acticed only ou smaller, and especially suitable, spots, or where blended with other 
bcstauds. In the southern part of the country it is preferable to blend the oak with the 
beech, and in the central part with the so-called Norway si)ruce. The ground 
ought to be such that it can, without too many obstacles, like grubs and the 
like, be worked to the requisite depth with plow or hoe. Afterward tlie acorns are 
sown, either as grain, in which case they obtain earth-covering by harrowing, and 
wherein 2 cubic feet (Swedish) of acorns are required per quadrat ref, (about one-fifth 
of an acre,) or are laid separately in a hole made by a two-pronged hoe. * * * * 
In the latter case, 1 cubic foot of acorns per quadrat ref is sufficient. 

Sometimes the acorns are sowed in rows ; the acorns being dropped .5 to 6 inches from 
each other in every third or fifth furrow, according as the hand who plows progresses, 
in Avhich case, the earth-covering is effected by plowing the next furrow ; or, it is 
sometimes done by means of holes made by a board form, (with a sort of milking-stool 
handle placed upon it,) the taps or tenons in the form being fnnn 4 to 5 inches long 
and 6 to 7 inches apart, where one large or two small acorns are dropped. In the latter 
process, about one cubic foot of acorns per quadrat ref are sufficient. 

In row-sowing only that portion of the ground which is actually sowed is plowed, 
namely, belts 3 to 5 feet broad, and 5 to 8 feet apart, according as a more considerable 
mixture of other sorts of trees is desired. The intermediate space then receives only 
such preparation as the kind of tree requires, whether raised by sowingor transplanting. 

Sowhig iv squares o{ one-quarter of a square foot is used most for "help culture," 
or when the oak is to be mixed with other sorts of trees, but can also be used in raising 
the oak bestand. In the latter case, the squares are hoed up to the size of at least two 
square feet, and at a distance from each other of 5 to 6 feet. For sowing, one cubic 
foot of acorns 'are calculated per quadrat ref. When in square sowing the earth needs 
to be mellowed to the depth of at least 6 inches, the process is regarded more as pit 
sowing, especially as earth-filling or hill-manuring is not seldom needed for the oak. 
A handful of such tilling is required for every quadrat foot of the square's extent. 

Piece sowing is ou soil naturally loose, and not troubled by a strong growth of grass, 
and is a method of cultivating the oak, which, considering its little ex[icnsi', and in 
comparison therewith, satisfactory results, should obtain an extensive practice. lu 
making the hole, which should be ,2 to 2^ inches deej), the "stitt "-stick, "siitt" augur, 
and "siitt" hammer are used. One or two acorns, according to their size, and, from 
previous experience, growing capacity, are dropped in each of the holes, which are at a 
distance of 2 to 3 feet, dependent on how little or large will be the mixture of other 
sorts of trees. The hole can also be made with a hoe, wherewith a strong blow is 
sufficient. For piece sowing, a half to two-thirds of a cubic foot of acorns are required 
per quadrat ref, or fifth of an acre. 

5. Transplaniing of the oak. 

As, from what has been seen, the oak does not admit in general of being raised ia 
separate masses or clean bestand, nor, on account of its demand for good soil, in very 
large connected tracts. TransplantiiH/ is a method of rearing only exceptionally used. 
Nevertheless it may be practiced with success where the oak is cultivated on a some- 
what large scale in situations protected from frost. 

The oak may be transplanted from three to four years of age up to the time it has 
attained a height of 15 feet. But it has been found that the setting of smaller plants 
and young trees of ^ to 1 inch in diameter succeeds better than the seiting of medium 
sized five to eight year plants. These latter have, in proportion to the size of the plant, 
a less number of roots. Sometimes wild-growing young trees can be removed. These 
are, however, never so good as those reared in the plant-school, as their widely ex- 
tended roots are considerably injured in taking up, which again occasions a consider- 
able trinmiing of the branches ; the top itself sometimes requiring to be taken otf. 
Such rough usage, of course, injuries their future growth. Plants are reared, therefore, 
rather in the school. For preventing a too strong development of the tap or center 
root, and to avoid as far as possible the cutting of the same, it has been sought to have 
only a shallow layer of pulverized earth in the bed of the plant when it is to be trans- 
planted earlier than the third or fourth year of its age. It often occurs, however, that 
the root shoots down so deep that it must be cut olf. Therefore, as this manner of 
incompletely preparing the ground does not accomplish the desired object, but on the 
contrary obstructs the natural ilevelopment of the plant, it is not to be recommended. 

A method of oak culture to employ in order to facilitate the transplanting and to 
avoid the difficulty of transferring from the fresh bed to an intermediate one, is to drop 
the acorns so far apart that the plants can for a longer time continue to grow at their 
original distance; in which case the tap-root is severed by means of a sharp spade 
two years before the transplanting occiu's, su that the sucker roots about the cutting 
may be formed by the time the plants are taken up. The branches are likewise to be 
somewhat shortened at the same time. Although this proceeding sometimes succeeds 



42 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN, 

it nmst uevertholess be regarded as rather hazardous where one has not the means to 
know imiLcdiately ho\Y much of the root has been taken off, and thereby to determine 
how ranch the branches shouhl \)e clipped. On the contrary " oniskoliiing" or the 
transferring of the phmt from its lirst to an intermediate bed, should be recommended 
for general practice because it, in a less violent manner, prevents too great lengthen- 
ing of the root and contributes more powerfully' to the shooting out of small or sucker 
roots. 

The transplanting of shoots is very expensive as well iu consequence of the more 
troublesome taking up as the increased labor, both of digging and arranging the plant- 
hills, without even the setting out ; in respect to which last, if it is done with requisite 
care, every shoot should have a little earth-hill, which occasionally ought to be hoed or 
stirred up. If wild-growing shoots are used the expense is increased exceedingly 
through the difficulty of digging up ; in doing of which one must often use specially 
constructed light an<l shari> s^iades in order to cut off the extended roots. The trans- 
planting of large shoots occurs only in pasture-ground or where strong frosts are to 
be feared. 

In other cases younger plants three to four years old are used, but only exceptionally, 
with clumps of earth, partly because the oak can be planted very well without, and 
partly because it is difficnlt to take up such clumps of earth of the requisite depth. 
As a well-pulverized earth especially contributes to the growth and success of the 
plants they are for the most part set iu hills. If the earth has been pulverized for a 
year or two before, either by cultivation for root or garden crops, or by deep spading 
on spots intended for plants, even tenderer plants can set out, if not too busiiy, with the 
" siitt iron " or wedge-spade. 

For hill planting the young plants are not clipped at all, at least as little as possible, 
as the cutting necessarily injures them. If the tap-root is longer than can be set in 
the hill without cutting, it is better for the progress of the plant to make a liole for it 
in the bottom of the hill, by a pointed staff. Where filling earth is required to improve 
the ground it is used. 

Whether larger or smaller plants are used it is important they are not set too deep. 
On the contrary one has nothing to fear from a shallow transplanting; yet the earth, 
especially if it "is hard, should be well and deeply pulverized so that even smaller, three 
to four years' old plants, may obtain a foot of loose earth for the outspreading of their 
roots. 

In oak culture it is particularly material to blend the bestand iu a desirable manner, 
and therefore to transplant other sorts of trees, which, better than the oak, contribute 
to the fertility of the ground between the rows of oaks. That beech and spruce are 
most suitable for this object has already been stated ; yet other sorts of trees can be 
employed. But one must observe not to select such kinds of trees that will grow so 
as to overshadow and crowd the oak, or at least see that these latter may obtain a suita- 
ble seed career, and that all such trees whose near standing is disadvantageous to the 
oak limbs are afterward cut away. 

Transiihinting in the spring is most suitable to the oak, but on higher situations, free 
from frost, it may be done in the autumn. Smaller plants obtain four feet between dis- 
tance when trans}ilanted in squares ; iu rows three feet, with from 6 to 8 to 1 2 to 16 feet 
between rows, depending on the need of the soil for other sorts of trees. Larger 
shoots, which for the most part are set out in quadrat form, obtain a distance of 9 to 10 
feet. On pasture-laud the between distance is IG to 24 feet, according as regard is had 
to obtaining timber or pasture. In low forests where stump plants are used with ad- 
vantage these are set out at three to four years of age, at a distance of 7 to 8 feet. 

6. Tlie arch. 

The larch, which iu later times has been introduced into Sweden, has yet nowhere 
been able to come to maturity and for consumption as a bestand. * * 

To give it a vigorous growth re(iuires a good clay mixed and tolerably deep sand soil, 
and it thrives best iu a moist situation. Better, however, on dry soil than wet or sour, 
Avhich latter the larch cannot at all tolerate. The j^/aj(< has greater need of light thau 
the pine, and can sooner be freed from shading. 

The bestand of larch should be protected from strong wind ; but it suffers less from 
windfalls than other species of fir trees, because of its deep roots and that its foliage 
falls before the heaviest storms usually occur. During the first forty to sixty years 
it grows rapidly, and improves the ground through its yearly falling and easy-mold- 
ing leaves. After this time a strong self-pruning begins, whereby the bestand grows 
thin and the ground deteriorates. Like other sorts of trees which are oppressed by a 
strong self-pruning the larch ought not to be reared in clean bestand, but iu mixture 
with the kinds of trees which maintain the bestand closed, so that the larch tree by 
this may 1)e able, without causing any trouble to the soil, to be left to grow to higher 
age, when the timber first acquires a remarkable quality, namely, to withstand rotting 
better than most other kinds of timber. Middle-aged and young larch trees produce, 
on the contrary, very iuditferent timber. 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 43 

Rolaflon jyei-iod. — Within its native Alp regions tlie" larch can attain an age of six 
hundred years. In Sweden, and in otlier conntries where it lias been introduced, one 
hundred and fifty to two hundred years should be the highest age it can reach, in 
Avhich case one hundred and twenty to one hundi'ed and forty years is the most-suit- 
able period of rotation. On an unsuitable growing-place, it sometimes attains an age 
of only forty to fifty years. 

Seed-setting. — The lai'ch often bears seed copiously, though only a smaller part are 
sound. At eight to ten years of age the tree has cones, but fruitful seeds ought not to 
be expected at a younger age than twenty years. 

7. The heech. 

The soil in which the lyeecli best thrives is a rich and strong loam sand, mixed clay 
soil, or clay-mixed sand soil, in which latter the sand should not too much predomi- 
nate. Intermixture of round stones seems to be advantageous. Situation moist, but 
better dry than wet. The plant is in a high degree sensitive to frost and requires pro- 
tection. 

The bestaiuh — Among all the sorts of trees found in our forests, there is none which 
can be compared to the beech in respect to its quality of improving the ground. ' Here- 
to, the numerous tree-crowns, free from acid matter, contribute, as well as the easy- 
molding leaves. The beech is also the only one of our usual leaf-trees which, with- 
out iujury to the ground, can be cultivated in clean or exclusive bestand. 

Botaf ion -period. — On a suitable growing-place, the beech attains an age of two hun- 
dred and fifty to three hundred years. The bearing-years occur, on an average, every 
seven to eiglit years. The seed-year may l)e observed the autumn before, by the pres- 
ence of numerous flower-buds, which are larger and jdumper than leaf-buds. 

8. TJie pine. 

The j>//»' occurs on soil of the most unlike quality, and iu the most difterent situ- 
ations, from the dry sand heath to the low moss where every other kind of ti'ee is 
excluded. A deep and pulverized sand-soil, rich iu loam and with an inconsiderable 
mixture of clay in moist situation, is, nevertheless, the soil whereon the pine develops 
the strongest growth. 

The ^ZoH^ experiences no injury from frost, and only during the first two years ap- 
pears to suffer from the eftects of drought. Grasg-growiug is injurious to them, but 
in a less degree than to other fir-trees. As long as the bestand is closed it continues to 
improve the ground by its rich offal ; but after the bestand becomes thin and leaves 
the ground without sufficient protection, the relation so changes that the pine does not 
prevent a gradual deterioration of the soil. Where the latter is naturally poor, a self- 
pruning, which thins the bestand, begins earlier. 

notation period. — In the northerly parts of the country two hundred, and on poorer 
ground three hundred, years are requisite for the jiine to grow to good timber. In the 
southerly tracts one hundred years are sufficient. Free or open growing pine produces 
seed at fifteen to twenty years of age. But in close bestand it does not bear seed till 
the age of fifty to seventy years, after which every fourth year, on an average, can be 
reckoned on for seed. As the pine cones require about eighteen months to ripen, and 
the seed does not fall sooner than five to six months afterward, there is, therefore, dis- 
cerned a coming seed-year already half another year before, by the yet small half-year- 
old cones. 

Felling, with seed-trees. — Where the ground is favorable for the reception of seed, six 
to seven older, healthy-seed-bearing trees should be left to each quarter of an acre. 
Where the ground is covered with grass, or slopes to the south, or is unusually bare, 
seed-trees should be left so that the cones shall not be more than about sixteen feet 
from each other. 

Seed. — The seed of the pine is iu closed cones, ripens in the latter part of October, 
the year next after blooming, and can be gathered from the beginning of November to 
the beginning of April. As has before been stated, cones of three difi'erent ages are 
often found on the same tree, namely, those that have opened and discharged the seed, 
those that are two years old, and those that are one year old. The proper ones can be 
distinguished from the rest without difficulty. They have a conic form, brownish-gray 
color, close-shutting shell, are from one to one and a half inch iu length, and are fixed 
near the base of the last year's cones. The one-year-old cones have their place at the 
end of the bud or twig, are round and of greenish color. Empty cones have extended 
shell, and are of a grayish-brown color. WLen gathered, cones should be preserved in 
a place free from dampness. If desired they may be kept ur shelled a year, but should 
be protected from the sun and from air-currents. To facilitate opening of the burrs a 
certain degree of warmth is required, the best being from the sun. Degree of warmth 
42*^ to 43'^ Celsius, sometimes 50°. Cones collected late in tlie winter do not require 
more than eight to twelve hours warmth of such degree as first mentioned ; earlier 

4 F C 



44 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

ones a day. * * * Wlien tlie.seeds leave the cone they bave film-like obloug wings, 
one end of which incloses the seed. * * » a pine cone contains twenty to thirty 
seeds. * * In pnrchasing them one must see that the weight has not been increased 
by being made damp for that purp(>se, as such treatment injures them ; also that they 
have not been warmed in an oven, the heat in such cases often being too great. Seven 
hundred good seeds make an ort, Swedish weight, (a little less than a hundredth part 
of a jjound.) A kanna of clean wingless seeds weighs 2.8 skiilpunds. 

9. The Mending of trees. 

The bestand of pine and spruce is incomparably the most important for Swedish for- 
ests. The spruce, which, at a higher age, affords sufficient shade for the ground and 
thereby maintains its fertility, compensates for what in this respect is lacking in the 
clean pine bestand, while the pine, on its part, *' kernel full" or vigorous stems, sup- 
plies that want of exterior hardihood which is observable in the exclusively spruce 
bestand. 

The bestand of //• frees, aspecially pine and spruce, with the lirch, is a blending which 
is not difficult to effect, and merits much attention, especially as the birch in such 
society acquires finer form of stem and larger size than Avhen it grows alone. ^ * » 
But as the birch does not preserve the fertility of the ground, it should not be the \)re- 
vailing sort. 

The bestand of fir and heecli occurs in the sonthin-n part of the kingdom, with the 
beech sometimes the prevailing sort. 

10. Bestand of heecli and oak. 

Tliis blending, especially for the oak, is of the greatest importance, because no sort of 
ti'ee contributes so powerfully as. the beech to maintain the soil at the degree of fer- 
tility which is requisite for the oak. This blending occurs in the south part of the 
country, where the climate is adapted to the beech ; but in that part north of where 
the beech flourishes the blending of the oak with fir trees is practiced, particular re- 
gard being paid to tlie selection of proper spots for the oak. * " With the beech 
the oak shows a growth not to be seen under other circumstances. 

The above, though perhaps imperfect, translations from Mr. Bjurkman's treatise will 
tend to show something of its practical character. 

VIII. — IN.STRUCTION IN FORESTRY. — (See Untv, SCO. Ill, V^ o.) 

The principal institution in Sweden for instruction in forestry is the Royal Forest 
Institute, at Stockholm. It is pleasantly situated on a rise of ground in a grove close 
to the bridge as one turns from the city to enter the Deer Park. The course of study 
occupies two years, and the first term begins in June. Tuition is free. Candidates for 
admission must have sound health, be neither under eighteen nor over twenty-eight 
years of age, and must have passed an examination such as admits to the university, 
which includes a knowledge of the German language, and either the English or French. 
Among the studies pursued are the classification and division of forest, forest culture, 
and the quality of timber, forest technology, climate and soil, forest botany, forest 
insects, art of hunting, mathematics, forest and game laws, map-drawing, &c. Four 
pupils receive from the State a stipend, as assistance, of 2.50 nx-dollars each, per year. 
Graduates are regarded as members of the forest " stat " or establishment, and are in 
the line of promotion therein ; their first appointnieut being that of assistant forester, 
which is generally received immediately after graduation and opens the way to their 
earning about 600 rix-dollars a year in surveying and otlier work connected with for- 
est. In ten years they can be promoted to "Jag miistere," or forester. Above this 
last office is the position of forest inspector which has been created for three or four 
years, \h^^00 rix-dollars are annually appropriated for the support of the institute. 
There are four active instructors, namely, the director and three "lektors,'' or teachei's. 

Forest schools. — Besides the institute there are, in Sweden, six forest schools which are 
principally supported bj' the government and located at the following places : Tierps, 
Upsala County; Ombergs, OstergiJtland County; Boda, Calmar County : Daniels Lands, 
Christiaustad County ; Hunnebcrg, Elfsborg County ; and Silbre, W^ester Norrland 
County. Tuition at" the forest schools is free, and besides ten pupils at each school 
receive board and lodging free. The course of study lasts eight moutlis. Some knowl- 
edge of the common" branches taught in the foll^-schools is all that is required for 
admittance. A graduate of a forest school can be employed as a forest watchman at 
about 300 rix-dollars per year and use of a dwelling and patch of ground. The studies 
are mentioned in the accompanying translation of regulations in regard to the forest 
schools. The governjuent oiiersto help support additional schools where local author- 
ities take the initiatory steps to establish them. From the report of 1867, it appears 
that 21,850 pupils in the "folk" or common schools received instruction in horticulture 
and tree-planting. Among the prominent schools of forestry in Europe i* one at Thar- 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 45 

vand, iu Saxony, one at Neustadt-Eberswalde, ia Prussia, one at Aschaffcnberg, in Bava- 
ria, one at Nancy, in Francs, and one at Mariaboruui, near Vienna. 

In Sweden it is the practice in every branch of the public service and department of 
instruction to allow money for the traveling expenses of persons sent abroad to obtain 
information : and sums varying from 500 rix-dollars to 1,200 rix-doUars are often 
granted for traveling iu foreign countries on forest purposes. 

IX. — Forest literature. 

Having in another part of this report mentioned some of the Swedish authors on. 
forestry, 1 will now refer to some other works and documents which merit the attention 
of people who are interested in forest culture in the United States. 

A short but practical article on the cuUitre and management of forest trees, hy J. J. 
Thomas, is published in the annual report of the Department of Agriculture for 1864. 

An article entitled American Forests ; their destruction and preservation, by F. Starr, jr., 
uiiiy be fouud in the annual report of the Department of Agriculture for' 1865. 

The report of the Department of Agriculture for 1870 also contains an interesting 
paper on the subject of forests. 

Field, Forest and Garden Botany, hj Professor Gray, of Harvard University, is un- 
doubtedly very useful as a hand-book, and for elementary instruction. 

The Noiih American Sylva, by F. Andrew Michaux, with notes by J. Jay Smith, 3; vol- 
umes, Philadelphia, Rice, Rutter & Co., 18G5. The father of the author, a Frenchman, 
devoted ten years, from 1785 to 1796, to a thorough exploration of the territory of the 
United States, accompanied by his son. The latter revisited the country in 1801, and 
again in 1807, making extensive researches, the result of which was .published in Paris 
1810-1813, with rich copper-plate engravings. The work was translated into English by 
Hillhouse, and printed in that language at Paris, 1819. The second English edition 
was brought out at New Harmony, Indiana, partly through the eiforts of William Mc- 
Clare. The present edition of 1865, in three large octavo volumes, contains the original 
illustrations beautifully colored, and deserves a place in every public library. 

The North American Si/lva, or a description of the forest trees of the United States, Canada 
and Nora Scotia, not puMished in the workofF. Andrew Michaux, illustrated by 121 colored 
plates, by Thomas Nuttall, three volames in two, Philadelphia; Rice & Hart, 1857. 
The author of this work visited the United States iu 1823, and remained several years 
making explorations. A standard authority. 

The Trees and Shrubs of Britain, by J. C. Lomlon, in eight volumes, second edition, 
London, Henry G. Bohn, 1854. In this Avork native and foreign trees are pictorially 
and botanically delineated and scientifically and popularly described, with their propa- 
gation, culture, management and uses in the arts, in useful and ornamental plantations, 
and in landscape gardening. The introductory chapters contain a historical and geo- 
graphical outline of the trees and shruljs of temperate climates throughout the world. 
The first four volumes contain the text, with above 2,500 engravings. The other four 
volumes are devoted to portraits of trees on octavo and qnarto plates. The work con- 
tains a mine of information iu regard to trees, very much of which would be highly 
entertaining to the general reader. It was first published in 1838, and the author 
cites upward of two thousand works referred to therein, which shows the voluminous 
character of forest literature even then. I venture to quote here a brief passage from 
his introductory chapter on the Inducements for tree plantinfj : 

"Many persons, when recommended to plant, reply: 'Of what use is it to plant at 
my age ? I can never hope to live to see my plants become trees.' This sort of an- 
swer does not, at first sight, appear surprising, if we suppose it to come from a person 
of sixty or seventy years of age, but we often hear it even from men of thirty or forty. 
In either case, such an answer is the result of error, founded on mistaken and prejudiced 
notions. We shall prove its incorrectness by matters of fact. In the year 1830 there 
were many sorts of trees in the arboretum of Messrs. Loddiges, which had been planted 
exactly ten years, and each of which exceeded 30 feet iu height. Most of these trees 
have since been cut down for want of room, but we have the names and the measurement 
of the whole of them. There are, also, at the present time (December, 1834) many trees 
in the arboretum of the London Horticultural Society's garden, at Chiswick, which 
have been only ten years planted, and which are between 30 feet and 40 feet in height. 
Why, then, should any one, even of seventy years of age, assign as a reason for declin- 
ing i^lanting that he cannot hope to live to see his plants become trees ? A tree 30 feet 
high, practically speaking, will effect all the general purposes for which trees are 
planted ; it will afford shelter and shade, display individual beauty and character, and 
confer expression on landscape scenery." (Introduction, p. 9.) 

The Forester, or a pi-actical treatise on the planting, rearing, and general management of 
forest trees. By James Brown, wood-surveyor, and nursery-man, Stirling ; fourth edi- 
tion, enlarged and improved. William Blackwood & Sons. Edinburgh and London : 
1871. Large octavo; pages 835. Undoubtedly the best work on the subject iu the 
English language. 



46 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTUSE OF SWEDEN. 

This author states that, within the last twenty years, he has sent out a very hirge 
number ot foresters to situations, at salaries varying from $350 to $800 per year. He 
laments that there is not a school iu Great Britain, where young men can learn effi- 
ciently all the hrauches of study in connection Avith forestry, and gives the following 
advice as to tlie way iu which a self-supporting institution for the purpose may he 
established : " Let an arboricultural association be formed of some of the leading landed 
proprietors in the country, with a few men of science among them, having for their 
object the cultivation of trees on the most approved and improved principles of the 
age, and the training up of young men as foresters according to these principles, in 
order to fill the places of the existing foresters of the old school, and thus as early as 
possible bring about an imjiroved state of arboriculture for the general welfare of the 
country. 

" Then, supposing that such an associa'tion were formed, where and how is the field 
of their operations to be had ? Of course they could not undertake anything in a defi- 
nite and practical way in respect to forestry without this. Such a field may easily be 
had, as there are many landed proprietors in this country who have more estates than 
one, and who would be willing, I have no doubt, to give over the woodlands on one of 
them for the purpose of forming an arboricultural school of it, of course under safe and 
proper conditions to both parties. TLie outline of the conditions might be made some- 
what as follows : The proprietor, E. F., lets to the association , for a period of, 

say forty years from date, all the woodLiuds at present on the estate of A., extending 
to about 2,000 acres, as per plan of the property to be referred to, at an annual rent of 

£ . The several crops embraced to be thinned, and otherwise dealt with for their 

improvement in health and value by the said association, and according to a mode to 
be proposed by them arul approved of by the said R. F., the proprietor," wlio is to sell 
the timber and other produce for his own behoof, the association to be paid by him for 
the labor performed by them in dealing with the works of thinning and otherwise im- 
proving the crops, as may be agreed upon, all at the usual rates for such works ; these 
to be agreed ou between the association and the said proprietor's agent at the begin- 
ning of eacli year, and before the works commence for the season. And the said R. F., 
the proprietor, lets also to the said association, for the said period of forty years, for 
the purpose of being planted by them from time to time with suitable kinds of trees, 

as may be agreed ou between the parties, that piece of waste land known as , and 

extending to 1,800 acres, at the annual rent of £ . This portion of land is let to 

the association on the understanding that, at the end of their lease, the said R. F., the 
proprietor, shall take over all the crops that shall then be found growing on it, at a 
valuation to be settled by two neutral men of skill, mutually chosen, when the said R. 
F., or his heirs, will pay the association the full value that may then be made in respect 
to the crops of trees that may have been planted by them on said laud. And it is to 
be understood that during the currency of the lease the said association shall have full 
power to manage the woods they may plant on said waste laud in their own way and 
as they may think fit, and to use for their own behoof all proceeds arising from them ; 
it being understood, however, that all the crops they may plant shall be jiroperly 
treated and trained, so as to insure their being valuable to the estate as a crop on the 
land, when they are handed over to the proprietor of the land at the end of the lease. 
And it is also agreed that the said association shall have no power to clear any portion 
of said croi)S of trees they may plant, nor any j^orlion of any crops whatever, without 
the consent of the proprietor of the laud. * * # * 

" A president and vice-presidents, with directors, would have to be appointed, as 
also a secretary, a treasurer, and auditor. Next, the working-resident staff might be a 
manager, who would be accountable to the president and directors for the proper work- 
ing of the objects of the association. He would be assisted by a professor of botany 
and vegetable physiology, and one of geology and chemistry, the latter combining 
physical geography and clhnatic science ; while he, the manager, would also have the 
assistance of a first-class i)ractical forester, whose duties would be to carry out all the 
practical operations, under the directions of the manager, in dealing with the woods,, 
and at the same time instruct and guide the pupils while at their various works in the 
woods. 

" To accommodate a staif of this kind, together with, say fifty or sixty pupils, a con- 
venient house would require to be provided, and as to whether the pupils would be 
resident in it or not, would of course depend on a careful consideration of all the cir- 
cumstances in connection with the locality in which the field was situated. At all 
events, one-half of the pupils would require to attend at a given hour every morning, 
to hear lectures and other instructions on the subjects to be taught by the professors, 
while the other half would go out to work iu the woods. These would return in the 
afternoon to get their course of instructions, while those who were studying in the 
morning would go out and take their jdaces in the woods ; and iu this way the routine 
of daily theoret-cal and practical instructions would be carried on. Of course a portion 
of the waste land would be taken up for planting every year, iu order to have the young 
men trained to the proj»er way of doing it, as also thinningin the diuerent plantations, with. 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN 47 

bark-stripping, pruning, where necessary, draining, &c. In short, all these branches 
of work would be undertaken every year on some portion of the crops ; and as all the 
works would be performed by the pupils themselves, under the direction of the forester, 
every one would have the full opportunity of gaining practical experience, as well as 
theoretical knowledge, on the various branches of forestry. And it would he neces- 
sary to keep all the woods under the management of the association iu the very best 
possible condition, so that their character might become a model for all others to 
imitate. And, besides, it would be desirable for the manager and his professors to visit, 
from time to time, the woods on other properties, and take with them their pupils to 
see them, when they would have an opportunity of comparing the management of 
other woods with that of those on their home district ; and in this way the pnpils 
would get much useful information and experience, within the shortest possible time, 
under the guidance of their teachers, and thus render them more intelligent and expe- 
rienced than they would be were their observations confined to the woods on the home 
field alone. *##**#» 

"In dealing with the pupils, the amount of fees they would pay would, of course, 
depend upon whether they were lodged in the institution or not, and had bed and 
board provided for them. I should say that they should be resident in the institution, 
and all receive like treatment as to education, board, and lodging. If they were not 
resident lodgers, irregularity would be certain to ensue, and want of proper rule. 
Then, if lodged, £50 a year might be a fair charge for each pupil. At all events, it 
should not exceed this sum. In accounting with the pupils, they ought to have put 
to their credit and deducted from their fees at the end of each term, when settlement 
is made, the value of the work they perform in the woods, at a fixed rate per hour or 
per daj"^, as may be arranged. This would make them more industrious than they other- 
wise would be, and make them take good interest in the works they were engaged iu. 
This value of work would, of course, be refunded to the association by their account 
against the proprietor of the woods for the work performed in them by their pupils. 

"In order that the pupils might be properly instructed iu all the branches bearing 
on arboriculture, and to secure the professors and all concerned doing their duties, an 
examination of the progress made by the jiupils should be made by the president and 
directors at the end of every six months, and awards put to the credit of the most pro- 
ficient and deserving. ^ n * ^ * * 

"As the young men become proficient in all the branches, (after three years' resi- 
dence at the institution,) theoretical and practical, of forestry, and leave the institu- 
tion, they should have each his certificate or diploma, stating his general acquirements 
and abilities, and whether he is first, second, or iMni class in his profession. These 
certificates should, of course, be given by the president and directors, and signed also 
by the professors ; and they should form a guarantee to landed proprietors who might 
be in want of foresters that the holders are men of undoubted professional abilities, 
and worthy of being trusted with the management of their woods." (Pp. 43-47.) 

The following are some of the recent standard German piiblications : 

iSaen und Flanccn. Ein Beitrag zur Holzcrzichung. Von Forstdirector H. Barck- 
hardt. Dritte Auplage, Hannover, 1867. 

Bas Forst Kultarweseii nach. Theorie und Erfah rung. Von Job. Phil. Ernst Ludwig 
Jiiger. Zweite Auplage, Marburg, 1865. 

Der Waldban oder die Forst Froductemucht. Von Dr. Carl Heyer. Zweite Auplage. 
Leipzig, 1864. 

Der tVald Seine Verjongung, Pplcge und Beuutzuug Von E. Landost. Zurich, 1866. 

Besides the works in Swedish already mentioned, are the following : 

Handledning vid Skogars Indlening till ordnard hushallning, &c., of J. A. of Zell«5n, 
(with colored map.) Stockholm, 1869. 

Viigledning i Skogshus hallning med en karta of Isr Strom, Upsala. 

Handledning for Skogs hushallare i Finland of C. W. Gjlden. Helsiugfors, 1853. 

X. — List of some of the more HAriD-GROWi?,'G trees. 

What is given under this head is compiled i)rincipally from the works of Michaux, 
Loudon, and Brown. 

Black Italian poplar {Populns adadcsca.) — Grown on strong loamy soil, and sheltered 
situation, will in twelve years attain a height of 40 feet, with diameter of stem of nearly 
a foot. In England it has of late years been substituted for the cottonwood. 

Ontario poplar {Populas macrophylla.) — Worthy of cultivation as a timber tree, espe- 
cially on the sides of streams with a shallow soil; easily distinguished by its large 
heart-shaped leaves, some of which measure 10 inches from base to apex, and gummy 
and, in the spring, balsamic smelling buds. It has been found to attain the height of 
50 feet in fourteen years. Said to be a native of New Hampshire. Easily propagated 
by cuttings. 

The cottonwood (Canadian poplar) has in Europe attained the height of 50 feet ten 
years after planted, and is considered the best of all poplars for planting when the pro- 
duction of timber for profit is the object. 



49 FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 

The Lomhardy poplar is easily distinguished by its tall, narrow form ; thrives on toler- 
ably good soil, and attains largest size in proximity to water. A tree near Brussels is 
mentioned which in fifteen years attained the height of 80 feet, with a trunk from 7 to 
8 feet iu circumference. 

The sycamore (called also plane and buttonwood) flourishes best in a deep, loose, 
rich soil, in a cool, moist situation. When placed near water its growth is so rapid that 
in ten years it will attain the height of 40 feet, and in twenty years 80 feet, with a trunk 
8 feet in circumference at three feet from the ground. 

The elm grows rapidly in almost any soil or situation. Instances are given of trees 
.'vttaining the height of .50 feet after fourteen years planted. 

The tvilloio (Salix alba) will grow to the height of 60 fnet to 80 feet in twenty years, 
and thrives in dry uplands. This is also the most rapid-growiilg native tree of 
Sweden. 

The sugar-maple, in rich, strong, sandy loam, has attained the height of 24 feet six 
years after being planted. 

The locust requires a sandy loam, rich rather than poor, and a situation at once airy 
and sheltered. It is objectionable for hedge-rows or as scattered groups on arable land, 
on account of its roots extending close under the surface, and proving an impediment 
to the plow, and sending up suckers. It is a rapid-growing tree, and esteemed for fuel 
and timber. Plants in ten years from the seed attain a height of from 20 to ^0 feet, 
or even 40 feet. Propagated with facility by cuttings of the roots, but the best mode 
is by seed. 

The European larch is one of the most valuable species on account of its rapid pro- 
gress and excellent timber. It requires a soil deep and porous, and is found in its per- 
fection iu its native localities, the Alps, on a soil formed from the natural decomposition 
of rocks. It should be reared from seed from its native localities. In England it at- 
t.%ins the height of 20 to 25 feet in ten years from the seed. In the course of fifty 
years it will attain the height of 80 feet or ujiward. At ten years of age, on favorable 
soil and site, it is found to attain a diameter of 2 inches 8 feet from "the ground ; in 
fifteen years a diameter of 5 inches ; in twenty years 9 inches ; iu twenty-five years 
11 inches. (On favorable soil and site in Scotland, at twenty years of age, and 8 feet 
from the ground, the oak attains a diameter of 4.V inches, the pine 6i inches, the spruce 
7 inches, the sycamore ^A inches.) 

The Norway spruce is the loftiest of European trees, attaining a height in some 
cases of 180 feet. On old trees the branches are gracefully drooping. Leaves are 
dark green. It grows most luxuriantly in deep loams and low, somewhat moist situa- 
tions, or on acclivities with a northeast aspect and a moist, sandy soil. It is one of the 
best nurses for other trees. In ten years from the seed the plants will attain the height 
of 12 to 15 feet, and in fifty years the height of 90 to 100 feet. The wood is light, fine- 
grained, elastic, and varies in durability according to the soil on which it has grown. 

C. C. ANDREWS. 

Leg.vtiox of thk United States, 

Stockholm, August fj, 1872. 



R E I> O R T 



THE DEPARTMENT OF STATE 



FORESTS AND FOREST-CULTURE OF SWEDEN. 



C . C . ANDREWS, 

MINISTER HESIDENT 01-' THE UNITED STATES TO SWEDEN ANH NOUWXY. 




WASHINGTON: 

aOVEENMENT PRINTING OFFl(!K 

1872. 















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